Remedial education
Encyclopedia
Postsecondary remedial education (also known as postsecondary remediation, developmental education, basic skills education, compensatory education, or preparatory education) is a large and growing segment of higher education
in the United States
. It is composed primarily of sequences of increasingly advanced courses designed to bring underprepared students to the level of skill competency expected of new college freshmen. Estimates suggest that as many as 41% of all new college freshmen enroll in remedial coursework during their postsecondary pursuits.
by providing opportunities to rectify disparities generated in primary education
and secondary schooling, to develop the minimum skills deemed necessary for functional participation in the economy and the democracy, and to acquire the prerequisite competencies that are crucial for negotiating college-level coursework. On the other hand, critics argue that taxpayers should not be required to pay twice for the same educational opportunities, that remediation diminishes academic standards and devalues post-secondary credentials, and that the large number of underprepared students entering colleges and universities demoralizes faculty. Following from these critiques, some have argued for a major restructuring of remediation or even the elimination of remedial programs altogether."
, they are less common in Europe
. Nevertheless, several European higher education
institutes have started to offer remedial education programmes as well . One of the reasons why European universities are starting to develop remedial courses is the different situation in the two continents. In the United States
, a common assumption is that remediation attracts underprepared students of low socio-economic status
. Inadequate academic preparation is no longer a barrier to college access. In contrast, in Europe
a large part of the transitional problems are caused by differences among national secondary educational programmes
which are determined on a national level . Therefore foreign students are hindered to effectively start a bachelor
or master programme
. Remedial or developmental courses can help to bridge this gap.
of remedial courses on outcomes such as persistence to graduation, quality of performance in subsequent courses, and grade point average. Many researchers claim that very little research
has been conducted to investigate the effectiveness
of remedial or developmental education and that research
concerning the effectiveness
of remedial education programmes has been sporadic, underfunded, and inconclusive and has serious methodological flaws. Recently, efforts have been made to use more rigorous research designs (e.g. regression discontinuity design) to evaluate remedial effectiveness.
Other research suggests that "bridge" programs that integrate basic skills and remedial education with higher-level content or technical training can produce substantially better results than traditional remedial programs.
which helps students to provide knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in university. This way, foreign students can study in their home country, which reduces their costs while at the same time offering flexibility to develop their knowledge
and skills. ICT
has the power to support independent learning as well as to learn irrespective of time and geographical constraints with the widespread implementation of internet
.
of online remedial courses, the tutor’s roles in designing and organizing the learning experience, providing technical advice and support, encouraging and facilitating discussion, encouraging participation, using a variety of forms of instruction, and resolving communication problems are crucial.
, MSN Web Messenger and Adobe Acrobat Connect allow learners to efficiently communicate using free or low cost technology
such as a simple desktop computer
. Until recently, such basic technology
would only allow for asynchronous learning
, as for example in discussion groups.
, a European framework of transitional courses is necessary. By developing European Framework for Transitional Preparatory Courses (EFTPC), teachers around Europe
can see how their design of their courses fit with the framework. In addition, potential improvements are identified and can be extended with the insights from the field. By using the WIKI
technology
, each teacher can add his/her suggestions to the EFTPC. This Framework is being developed in frame of European project STEP [Studies on Transitional Electronic Programmes http://www.transitionalstep.eu/].
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. It is composed primarily of sequences of increasingly advanced courses designed to bring underprepared students to the level of skill competency expected of new college freshmen. Estimates suggest that as many as 41% of all new college freshmen enroll in remedial coursework during their postsecondary pursuits.
Remedial education in the United States
Postsecondary remediation is a controversial issue. As Bahr explains, "On one hand, it fills an important niche in U.S. higher educationHigher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
by providing opportunities to rectify disparities generated in primary education
Primary education
A primary school is an institution in which children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education. Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational,...
and secondary schooling, to develop the minimum skills deemed necessary for functional participation in the economy and the democracy, and to acquire the prerequisite competencies that are crucial for negotiating college-level coursework. On the other hand, critics argue that taxpayers should not be required to pay twice for the same educational opportunities, that remediation diminishes academic standards and devalues post-secondary credentials, and that the large number of underprepared students entering colleges and universities demoralizes faculty. Following from these critiques, some have argued for a major restructuring of remediation or even the elimination of remedial programs altogether."
Remedial education in Europe
While remedial programmes are common in the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, they are less common in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
. Nevertheless, several European higher education
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
institutes have started to offer remedial education programmes as well . One of the reasons why European universities are starting to develop remedial courses is the different situation in the two continents. In the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, a common assumption is that remediation attracts underprepared students of low socio-economic status
Socioeconomic status
Socioeconomic status is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family’s economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation...
. Inadequate academic preparation is no longer a barrier to college access. In contrast, in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
a large part of the transitional problems are caused by differences among national secondary educational programmes
Secondary education
Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. Secondary education includes the final stage of compulsory education and in many countries it is entirely compulsory. The next stage of education is usually college or university...
which are determined on a national level . Therefore foreign students are hindered to effectively start a bachelor
Bachelor
A bachelor is a man above the age of majority who has never been married . Unlike his female counterpart, the spinster, a bachelor may have had children...
or master programme
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
. Remedial or developmental courses can help to bridge this gap.
The effectiveness of remedial courses
The question that rises is whether successful completion of a remedial course guarantees students’ success in college. The literature provides limited evidence for the effectivenessEffectiveness
Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result. When something is deemed effective, it means it has an intended or expected outcome, or produces a deep, vivid impression.-Etymology:...
of remedial courses on outcomes such as persistence to graduation, quality of performance in subsequent courses, and grade point average. Many researchers claim that very little research
Research
Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
has been conducted to investigate the effectiveness
Effectiveness
Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result. When something is deemed effective, it means it has an intended or expected outcome, or produces a deep, vivid impression.-Etymology:...
of remedial or developmental education and that research
Research
Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
concerning the effectiveness
Effectiveness
Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result. When something is deemed effective, it means it has an intended or expected outcome, or produces a deep, vivid impression.-Etymology:...
of remedial education programmes has been sporadic, underfunded, and inconclusive and has serious methodological flaws. Recently, efforts have been made to use more rigorous research designs (e.g. regression discontinuity design) to evaluate remedial effectiveness.
Measuring the effectiveness
One way of measuring the effectiveness of a developmental/remedial programme is to investigate whether the enrolled students actually complete the remedial courses successfully. Several researches found that underprepared students who completed remedial coursework achieve greater academic success than underprepared students who didn’t complete remedial coursework or students who started college academically prepared. These findings support McCabe’s statement that successfully remediated students perform well in standard college work. "From what study?"Success factors
Kozeracki (2002) destinguishes seven commonly cited elements that are associated with student success in developmental programmes:- Orientation, assessment, and placement are mandatory for new students
- Clearly specified goals and objectives are established for courses and programmes
- The adult learningAdult educationAdult education is the practice of teaching and educating adults. Adult education takes place in the workplace, through 'extension' school or 'school of continuing education' . Other learning places include folk high schools, community colleges, and lifelong learning centers...
theory is applied in the design and delivery of the courses - The courses are highly structured
- The programmes is centralized or highly coordinated
- Counseling, tutorTutorA tutor is a person employed in the education of others, either individually or in groups. To tutor is to perform the functions of a tutor.-Teaching assistance:...
ing, and supplemental instruction components are included - The social and emotional development of the students is taken into consideration
Other research suggests that "bridge" programs that integrate basic skills and remedial education with higher-level content or technical training can produce substantially better results than traditional remedial programs.
ICT in remedial education
Online remedial education is defined as an instruction method using ICTInformation and communication technologies
Information and communications technology or information and communication technology, usually abbreviated as ICT, is often used as an extended synonym for information technology , but is usually a more general term that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of...
which helps students to provide knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in university. This way, foreign students can study in their home country, which reduces their costs while at the same time offering flexibility to develop their knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
and skills. ICT
Information and communication technologies
Information and communications technology or information and communication technology, usually abbreviated as ICT, is often used as an extended synonym for information technology , but is usually a more general term that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of...
has the power to support independent learning as well as to learn irrespective of time and geographical constraints with the widespread implementation of internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
.
Advantages and possibilities
Advantages:- Flexible instructional pace and flexible class participation
- Elimination of barriers of time and space
- Cost-effectiveness of online courses
- Electronic researchResearchResearch can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
availability (digital libraries and online databases) - A well-designed online course makes it easy for students to navigate and find the adequate information
Disadvantages and problems
Disadvantages:- Delayed feedback from the instructor
- Unavailable technical support from the instructor
- Lack of self-regulation and self-motivation
- Sense of isolation, caused by the lack of interpersonal communicationInterpersonal communicationInterpersonal communication is usually defined by communication scholars in numerous ways, usually describing participants who are dependent upon one another. It...
and interaction among students or between students and the instructor, or caused by the use of monotonous instructional methods - A poorly designed course interface makes students feel lost in seeking information
The role of the teacher in online remedial education
In order to provide a positive experience and to ensure the effectivenessEffectiveness
Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result. When something is deemed effective, it means it has an intended or expected outcome, or produces a deep, vivid impression.-Etymology:...
of online remedial courses, the tutor’s roles in designing and organizing the learning experience, providing technical advice and support, encouraging and facilitating discussion, encouraging participation, using a variety of forms of instruction, and resolving communication problems are crucial.
Collaborative tools
A recent development in collaborative working and learning is the use of synchronous tools like web-videoconferences whereby learners meet online at a fixed time (synchronous) in an online classroom. While web-videoconferencing is not a new phenomenon, tools like SkypeSkype
Skype is a software application that allows users to make voice and video calls and chat over the Internet. Calls to other users within the Skype service are free, while calls to both traditional landline telephones and mobile phones can be made for a fee using a debit-based user account system...
, MSN Web Messenger and Adobe Acrobat Connect allow learners to efficiently communicate using free or low cost technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
such as a simple desktop computer
Computer
A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem...
. Until recently, such basic technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
would only allow for asynchronous learning
Asynchronous learning
Asynchronous learning is a student-centered teaching method that uses online learning resources to facilitate information sharing outside the constraints of time and place among a network of people. Asynchronous learning is based on constructivist theory, a student-centered approach that...
, as for example in discussion groups.
European Framework of Transitional Preparatory/Remedial Teaching
In order to be able to compare and assess various preparatory courses in EuropeEurope
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, a European framework of transitional courses is necessary. By developing European Framework for Transitional Preparatory Courses (EFTPC), teachers around Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
can see how their design of their courses fit with the framework. In addition, potential improvements are identified and can be extended with the insights from the field. By using the WIKI
Wiki
A wiki is a website that allows the creation and editing of any number of interlinked web pages via a web browser using a simplified markup language or a WYSIWYG text editor. Wikis are typically powered by wiki software and are often used collaboratively by multiple users. Examples include...
technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
, each teacher can add his/her suggestions to the EFTPC. This Framework is being developed in frame of European project STEP [Studies on Transitional Electronic Programmes http://www.transitionalstep.eu/].
See also
- ICTInformation and communication technologiesInformation and communications technology or information and communication technology, usually abbreviated as ICT, is often used as an extended synonym for information technology , but is usually a more general term that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of...
- University-preparatory schoolUniversity-preparatory schoolA university-preparatory school or college-preparatory school is a secondary school, usually private, designed to prepare students for a college or university education...
External Links
- Basic Skills and Workforce Training. Center for Law and Social Policy.
- Developmental Education.org. Developmental Education resources for researchers, practitioners, policymakers, administrators, students and citizens.