Puerto Rican Campaign
Encyclopedia
The Puerto Rican Campaign was an American military sea and land operation on the island of Puerto Rico
during the Spanish–American War
. The offensive began on May 12, 1898, when the United States Navy
attacked the archipelago
’s capital, San Juan
. Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans were able to establish a blockade
in the city’s harbor, San Juan Bay. On June 22, the cruiser Isabel II and the destroyer
Terror delivered a Spanish counterattack, but were unable to break the blockade and the Terror was damaged.
The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Nelson A. Miles
disembarked of the coast of Guánica
. After controlling the first skirmish, the Americans advanced to Coamo
, where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle. The battle concluded when the allied soldiers retreated after the battle left two dead on their side, and four on the American side. The United States was able to seize control of Fajardo
on August 1, but were forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican-Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city, while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse. The Americans encountered larger opposition as they advanced towards the main island’s interior. They engaged in two crossfires in Guamani River and Coamo
, both of which were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated. A battle in San Germán
concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares
.
On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito
and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. In the subsequent crossfire, confused soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and five American officers were gravely injured, which prompted a retreat order. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U.S. President William McKinley
and French Ambassador Jules Cambon
, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice
whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territories of Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines and Guam.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayler Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and naval stations, and which would serve as strategical points of defense upon the construction of a canal in the Isthmus
.
This idea was not new, since William H. Seward
, the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents, among them Abraham Lincoln
and Ulysses Grant, had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras
, Nicaragua
or Panama
and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic
and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba.
Captain Mahan made the following statement to the War Department:
Since 1894, the Naval War College
had been formulating plans for war with Spain. By 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked: sugar.
Following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor, Cuba, the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba. In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States, and on April 23, 1898, Spain declared war
. On April 25, the U.S. Congress
declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20. One of the United States' principal objectives in the Spanish-American War was to take control of Spanish possessions in the Atlantic — Puerto Rico and Cuba — and their possessions in the Pacific — the Philippines
and Guam
.
On April 27, U.S. ships, the monitor
, the armored cruiser
s , and the , bombarded the Spanish fortifications at Matanzas Bay in Cuba and, by July 16, an armistice
was signed at the Arbol de La Paz (a large ceiba
tree) by U.S. and Spanish forces. The United States then dispatched its fleet to Puerto Rico. Two prominent leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, Dr. Julio J. Henna
and Roberto H. Todd, had written to U.S. President McKinley asking that Puerto Rico be included in whatever intervention was planned for Cuba as early as March 10. They even provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island.
where they battled the American forces in the Battle of San Juan Hill
. After the battle, the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70% casualties which included their dead, wounded, MIA’s and prisoners. The Spanish appointed Governor of Puerto Rico
, Manuel Macías y Casado
, declared martial law
, resolving to resist the American forces. He declared: “Providence will not permit that in these countries which were discovered by the Spanish nation the echo of our language should ever cease to be heard, nor that our flag should disappear before the eyes…. Long live Puerto Rico, always Spanish. Long live Spain.” Macías y Casado hoped that a grant of autonomy
would ensure that Puerto Ricans would remain loyal to the Spanish crown.
The Spanish Crown was unaware that, at the time, the United States had successfully infiltrated the island with a number of spies, among them Henry Howard Whitney, Henry Ward, George Bronson Brea, William Freeman, James Dewel, Frederick Ober and Edwin Emerson Jr.
According to a story published in Century magazine in September 1898, Edwin Emerson,Jr. was pretending to be a German journalist. He presented himself to the German Consul in St. Thomas and asked for the names of Puerto Ricans of German descent whom he could interview. Among the names which the consul gave him were that of the Riefkohl family of the town of Maunabo. Upon his arrival in the town of Maunabo he met 14 year old Rudolph W. Riefkohl
and asked the lad in German
if he had a map of Puerto Rico (Emerson had lost his). Riefkohl answered that he did, however it was decidedly too big for Emerson’s use. Riefkohl returned home, not knowing that Emerson was a spy, and quickly drew another with a depiction of the major ports and harbors of Puerto Rico. Emerson used the map and it is believed by some that he may have given the map to General Nelson A. Miles, influencing the general’s decision as to the disembarkation points for the invasion of Puerto Rico. A photostatic copy of Riefkohl’s map was published in the Century article.
was assigned the command of the Spanish forces in the fortress of San Cristóbal in San Juan. On May 10, the Yale returned to San Juan Bay, Rivero-Méndez ordered his men to open fire upon the using an Ordoñez 15 centimeter cannon, thus becoming the first attack against the Americans in Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War
. For his actions, Captain Rivero-Mendez was awarded the "Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar" (The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class.
The Bombardment of San Juan
or the First Battle of San Juan (not to be confused with the Battle of San Juan Hill
or the Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua
) refers to an American naval
attack on the fortification
s of San Juan, Puerto Rico
during the Spanish-American War
.
For weeks, the United States Navy
had been anxiously awaiting the arrival of the Spanish fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete
, unaware that he had already eluded them and slipped his squadron into the Bay of Santiago
.
On May 12, U.S. Admiral William T. Sampson
and a fleet of 10 American ships arrived in San Juan to bombarded the city's citadels. After causing much damage to the Spanish defenses and receiving minor damage, low on coal
and ammunition, Sampson ordered a cease fire and returned to Havana
, Cuba
and then to Florida
for repairs and supplies.
The residents of San Juan were furious with Rivero and blamed him for the destruction caused to their city by the American bombardments. Nothing came of those accusations and Capt. Rivero-Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain Henry A. Reed of the U.S. Army after the Treaty of Paris of 1898
was signed.
and joined the blockade. Shortly after midday an old Spanish cruiser named set off from San Juan to engage the Saint Paul under protection of shore batteries. She opened fire on Saint Paul at long range without success in an attempt to break the blockade. , a Spanish destroyer docked in San Juan for repairs, attempted to cover the cruiser’s escape with a torpedo
attack but was thwarted when her rudder was put out of action by a direct hit from the Saint Paul. The breaking of the Terror’s rudder caused the ship to turn, allowing the Saint Paul to score direct hits near the Terror’s waterline, disabling one of her engines and causing her to list. The Terror gave up the attack and returned to port, followed by Isabel II. On June 26 the Saint Paul was relieved by the , which continued to blockade the port.
with a squadron of Spanish warships. This squadron consisted of one cruiser, two gunboats and one blockade runner. During the engagement, the Spanish blockade runner was heavily damaged by the American ships and ran aground. About a week later the a U.S. cruiser destroyed the runner where she was stuck.
After Cuba was taken, President McKinley approved the land invasion of Puerto Rico by way of Fajardo, taking into consideration that the Spaniards had fortified San Juan, where they expected the initial attack. A convoy of ships left Tampa, Florida
and on July 21 another convoy, which included the USS Yale, USS Massachusetts, USS Gloucester and the USS Dixie, departed from Guantánamo
for a 4 day journey to Puerto Rico.
Major General Nelson A. Miles
, Commanding General of the Army, was aboard the USS Yale. While approaching the Strait of Mona of Puerto Rico, Miles opted to land his troops in the southern region of the island, picking Guánica
as his landing zone. He sent patrol boats to notify all other convoys of his decision and order them to join him. His decision was based on his belief that the city of Fajardo would be fortified and he feared that small gun boats based on the shore could disrupt a landing there.
On July 25, Miles and a convoy of ships, under the command of Naval Captain Francis J. Higginson, arrived at Guánica Bay. The following troop carrying ships were part of the convoy:
USS Yale with Generals Miles and Garretson
, plus 1,300 infantry soldiers of the 3,300 total that were assigned for the initial invasion, , USS Lampasas, , USS Comanche with General Guy V. Henry, Nueces, USS Unionist, USS Stillwater, Rita and USS Specialist (both the Nueces and the Rita were Spanish ships which were confiscated by the Yale). These ships were accompanied by the following battleships, destroyers and cruisers: the flagship , , and .
In 1898, Guánica was a small barrio
within the jurisdiction of the town of Yauco
. It had 60 houses in all and its only defense was eleven members of the 4th Volante de Yauco, a Puerto Rican militia unit, under the command of Lieutenant Enrique Méndez López. When the Guánica lighthouse
keeper Robustiano Rivera spotted the approaching convoy, he immediately gave the alert to the residents of the barrio. All of the residents, with the exception Agustín Barrenechea, Vicente Ferrer, Juan María Morciglio, Simón Mejil, Salvador Muñoz, Cornelio Serrano and Pascual Elena who welcomed the invaders, abandoned their homes and joined Rivera on his journey to Yauco where he broke the news of the invading forces to the city’s mayor.
, under the command of Lieutenants H. P. Huse and Wood, departed from the ship on rafts and landed on the beach. The Marines lowered the Spanish flag from the beach flagpole and replaced it with the American flag. They then proceeded to set up a machine gun nest and placed barbed wire
around their perimeter. The first land skirmish in Puerto Rico between the Puerto Rican militia and the American forces occurred when Lt. Méndez López and his men attacked and opened fire on the Americans. During the small battle which followed, the Americans returned fire with their machine gun and the Gloucester began to bombard the Spanish position. Lt. Méndez López and three of his men were wounded and the militia unit was forced to retreat to the town of Yauco.
After the skirmish was over, men from the Lampasas landed on the beach to secure the area and to build a landing dock. 3,300 American soldiers under the command of General Miles landed. The units that landed were the 6th Volunteer Regiments of Illinois and Massachusetts, an Artillery battalion, five battery companies, two engineer companies and a medical unit. The men who had not abandoned the barrio of Guanica swore allegiance to the United States. Garretson named Agustín Barrenechea mayor of Guanica and Simón Mejil the chief of police. On the afternoon of the 25th, Garretson left Guánica with seven companies of the 6th Massachusetts and one company of the 6th Illinois and headed towards Yauco.
Secretary of War Russell A. Alger
learned about the landing at Guanica the next day when he read an Associated Press
report in a local Washington, D.C.
newspaper. The War Department had ordered Miles to invade Puerto Rico by way of San Juan and therefore Alger was completely surprised with the report. Miles would have been subject to disciplinary actions had the invasion not gone so smoothly. Alger received the following cable from Miles three days after the invasion:
. Puig had the men positioned on both sides of the road that ran from Guánica to the coffee Hacienda Desideria (owned by Antonio Mariani) in Yauco, as well as an infantry company positioned on a hill south of the hacienda.
In the meantime, Garretson, set out of Guánica with his men towards Yauco with the intention of capturing the Yauco rail terminus that ran between that town and the City of Ponce
, the largest city in the southern region of the island. Garretson and his men arrived in the darkness of night and was informed by his scouts of the possibility of a hostile situation at the Hacienda Desideria. He ordered the Illinois company and two companies (companies L and M) of the 6th Massachusetts to occupy a small hill on his right that overlooked the hacienda.
Captain San Pedro detected the movements of the American troops from his positions on a nearby hill and ordered his men to open fire. Garretson then ordered a direct attack on the Spanish and Puerto Rican forces in the hacienda. At day break, the 6th Massachusetts overran the Spanish forces and suffered four casualties. Puig was expecting reinforcements from Yauco which did not arrive and was ordered to disengage and retreat. Before retreating the right wing of the Spanish force, which was not overrun, initiated a flanking attack against two positions held by the Illinois and Massachusetts companies. The unexpected strength of the Spanish force caused some of the 6th Massachusetts troops to momentarily panic, but the Spanish forces were eventually driven off. Puig and his forces suffered two officers and three soldiers wounded and two soldiers dead.
Puig and his men retreated towards Yauco, but failed to destroy the rail terminus which connected the town to the city of Ponce, and proceeded to march towards the town of Peñuelas. Garretson’s troops entered Yauco in the afternoon of July 26 and on July 27 Puig’s men continued their march, leaving their artillery and heavy equipment behind, passing the towns of Adjuntas and Utuado and finally arriving at the town of Arecibo
on the northern coast of the island on July 29. Col. Puig, believing that he would be dishonored and accused by the Spanish Government of abandoning military equipment during his retreat, committed suicide on August 2.
Major General Nelson A. Miles, upon learning about the lack of discipline of the 6th Massachusetts during the battle, ordered an investigation. The 6th Massachusetts was sent on a hard march from Guánica to Ponce as punishment and the regimental commander, a lieutenant colonel, a major, and a captain resigned upon request.
) which was supposed to be the landing site for the US Army in Puerto Rico. Rodgers ordered some of his men ashore, which included Puerto Rican volunteers, with the mission of posting the American Flag atop the lighthouse.
On August 2, three more ships, the , USS Leyden
, and the arrived and joined the Puritan. The 25-man Spanish garrison stationed in the city became aware of the American presence and, after notifying their superiors in San Juan, were told to withdraw. When Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada, the mayor of the city, realized that the garrison was gone and that the city was defenseless against the invading Americans, he implored the Spanish authorities in San Juan to dispatch troops to defend his city. Believing that the Spanish forces would not come to his aid, Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada then went to the lighthouse to seek protection for the city from the Americans. On the afternoon of August 3, Dr. Veve Calzada entered the city with a contingent of Marines
and the United States flag was hoisted over the Fajardo Customs House and City Hall.
On August 4, Governor General Macias sent Colonel Pedro del Pino and 200 men to recapture the city. When Colonel Pino entered Fajardo he found it nearly deserted because the residents, fearing a battle, had fled to the Fajardo lighthouse. Pino waited until darkness fell and then ordered his men to attack the lighthouse. The Marines signaled the ships that they were under attack and the ships began to bombard the shore in a protective pattern. The Spanish forces retreated back to the city.
The following day U.S. Marine
Lieutenant John A. Lejeune
came ashore with a detachment of Marines and evacuated the civilians and Marines for transport to Ponce, and the lighthouse was abandoned. Meanwhile, in the City of Fajardo, Pino’s men tore down the United States flags that flew over the Customs House and City Hall and returned to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was abandoned, displaying the flags as his trophies of war. It was the only time that American forces were forced to withdraw from any position during the campaign in Puerto Rico.
by sea and by land. Garretson’s 6th Illinois and 6th Massachusetts had returned to Guanica and after the troops rested, Garretson and his men were ordered to move eastward to Ponce. Lt. Col. Rafael Martinez Illecas, in charge of the Spanish forces in that city, had pulled out, leaving behind a small garrison of 300 volunteers to hold the town. When the American forces arrived in Ponce they met no resistance and the Spanish volunteers surrendered to the invaders. The American forces were not the only ones who participated in the taking of Ponce. Members of the Puerto Rican Commission, which included the leader of the Intentona de Yauco
revolt, Antonio Mattei Lluberas
and his group, arrived in Ponce aboard the USS St. Louis and were assigned to the headquarters of General Miles. From this group Miles organized the "Porto Rican Scouts", which was later assigned to General Theodore Schwan, under the command of Edwardo Lugo Viñas. Miles then ordered Brigadier General Peter G. Hains and the men of the 3rd Illinois, 4th Ohio and 4th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiments to take Arroyo
, a small port 60 miles east of Ponce that served the larger, nearby coastal town of Guayama
. Arroyo was taken on August 2 and on August 5 Hanes ordered the 4th Ohio, the 3rd Illinois and a battery of Sims-Dudley guns, manned by Company G of the 4th Ohio, to capture Guayama.
Spanish forces were entrenched on the crest of two small hills, between which the road from Arroyo to Guayama ran. The Americans had crossed a stream in front of the hills when suddenly the Spanish opened fire. The Americans protected their position by the stream and increased their fire power as more reinforcements arrived. The outnumbered Spanish troops retreated to Guayama as the Americans made their advance on the hills. The firefight, which lasted half an hour, left three American wounded. When the 4th Ohio entered the town they discovered that the Spaniards had fled north and abandoned the city, ending the Battle of Guayama. General John Rutter Brooke used the Cautiño Residence (Casa Cautiño
) by the town square in Guayama as his military headquarters.
entrenched in Guanamí Heights, six miles north of the bridge. The 4th felt that they were too strongly entrenched to attempt an assault at the time. The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9, attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted. The numerical superiority of the Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guanami Heights. This battle was the costliest battle yet for the Americans since their landing at Guanica, as it resulted in seven wounded. The Spanish forces suffered 2 dead and 15 wounded.
(Central Road). The caravan was composed of two companies of the Batallón de Cazadores de la Patria (Battalion of the Motherland’s Hunters) and some members of the Civil Guard and a Puerto Rican guerilla force. A total of 248 infantry men and 42 members of the cavalry formed the battalions under the command of Lt. Col. Rafael Martínez Illescas, the same person who was in charge of the Ponce garrison. Traveling by foot, the journey would last two days. The group decided to spend one night in the resort of the town of Coamo known as the Baños de Coamo before continuing their march in the morning. Martínez Illescas immediately ordered the construction of several trenches; while building these, the soldiers were ambushed by an anti-Spanish guerilla force, led by Pedro María Descartes, who managed to kill a member of the Civil Guard.
Meanwhile, two battalions of volunteers from Wisconsin
and Pennsylvania
, led by Generals Oswald H. Ernst and James H. Wilson
, settled on opposite sides of the road to Coamo. On August 9, 1898, the Americans began their offensive, opening cannon fire against the city and completing their attack with artillery fire, the 3rd and 4th Regular Pennsylvania Artillery to provide artillery support for the frontal assault on the Baños, damaging the resort. The Americans intended to encircle and defeat the defenses in the city. A group of soldiers entered the city from the backside, having advanced through a river nearby. The rear assault was reinforced by Wilson’s army under General Ernst, attempting to trap the allied soldiers in a crossfire, employing a tactic known as the pincer movement
. Martínez Illescas was surprised by the attack and led an improvised attack, but he was killed in the crossfire along with his second-in-command, leaving Captain Hita in charge, who ordered his men to surrender. Half of the allied troops ignored the order, and continued the attack, Troop C galloped at top speed north from the Baños de Coamo, after finding the resort abandoned by the Spanish. Hita’s men were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp located a Río Descalabrado, while the men who continued to attack retreated to Aibonito when they realized that the Americans were using the pincer movement tactic.
and 2,896 men of his Independent Brigade had landed in Guanica and marched towards occupied Yauco. Schwan and his men were ordered to move westward and to capture the city of Mayagüez
. Colonel Julio Soto Villanueva ordered 1,500 Spanish Regulars of the 24th Rifle Battalion, six companies of the Alfonso XIII auxiliaries, and other scattered Spanish and Puerto Rican guerilla forces dispatched from the garrison at Mayagüez to meet and defeat Schwan. The Spanish forces entrenched themselves at a high ridge called Silva Heights, located at a road near the town of Hormigueros
.
Schwan’s troops arrived in the town of San Germán
and continued the march towards their objective. Troop A of Schwan’s 5th Cavalry approached Silva Heights and were soon engaged in a firefight when the Spanish forces opened fire. The Americans were aided by two companies of the 19th Infantry, supported by artillery and Gatling gun
s, as well as the 11th Infantry. The Spanish forces retreated after the American reinforcements brought them under intense fire.
Schwan’s men set up camp on Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez. They arrived the following morning to find that the Spanish forces had abandoned the city to retreat to the east towards Lares
. Schwan did not follow Soto Villanueva, but instead was ordered to take the town of Las Marías
. The outcome of the Silva Heights Battle left 3 Spanish dead, 6 wounded, and 136 prisoners. Schwan’s brigade suffered 15 wounded and 2 killed in action.
and Colonel S. Reber, developed a croquis
of the Aibonito Pass. Spies were deployed throughout Coamo, including a Puerto Rican separatist named Carlos Patterne, who was able to enter the city without suspicion and contact Rufino Huertas, a separatist teacher. Huertas gave Patterne a series of defense plans that were previously developed and organized by Martínez Illescas. While inactive, the Puerto Rican soldiers deployed in Asomante completed rounds every two hours, working four hours daily. They mostly ate beans, some rice and meat, while conserving several cracker packs for Spanish reinforcements that were supposed to arrive. They slept in improvised huts that did not protect them from the rain.
The American commanders decided to attack the trenches with artillery, while sending a large group to Barranquitas
, from which they would try to attack the allied troops from the back. At 10:30 a.m. Captain R.D. Potts led part of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment through the central highway to Aibonito. Lieutenants Bliss and O'Hern led two units with similar equipment. At 1:00 p.m. the allied troops opened cannon fire as the Americans entered their range. Potts ordered the deployment of two batteries while O'Hern received orders from Commander Landcaster to set a cannon at a distance of a 100 yards to the vanguard’s right. They intended to defeat the a small group led by Captain Hernaíz. Shrapnel from allied cannon fire was falling close to Lancaster’s location, and he asked Potts to help him by deploying a battery nearby. One of Hernaíz’s Placensias cannons overheated, which forced him to order a temporary cease to the offensive. Landcaster believed that the opposition had been annihilated, ordered an advance. However the allied fire was renewed, this time supported by Mauser
rifle fire. The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby. Fearing that the allied units could capture the American equipment, Landcaster ordered a retreat. Lieutenant Hains was gravely injured by a Mauser bullet, being replaced by Sergeant John Long. Meanwhile, most of Potts' men fled the battlefield. In the crossfire the allied forces overpowered the American infantry, using Mauser fire to disorganize their artillery, during which time four American officials were gravely injured including Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Sawanson. Private Frederick Yough, Corporal August Yank, George J. Bruce and Private Sices also received injuries, with Yough subsequently dying. Harris' position was filled by O'Hern, while Sawanson was fatally shot while trying to support the artillery. In total the allied units had only an injured artillery man, while the American side had two dead and five injured. Wilson’s camp was the first to receive a telegram from General Miles notifying him of the amnesty declared by the signing of the Treaty of Paris
. The Americans sent Bliss to Asomante, but Nouvilas refused to suspend the hostilities after receiving a telegram from Macías denying any peace treaty. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended August 13, after President William McKinley
and French Ambassador Jules Cambon
, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice
whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico.
and Eugenio María de Hostos
expected the United States to grant the island its independence and in the case of Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón
and the committee which he headed, greeted General Miles and the invaders in Ponce with banquets. Believing that Puerto Rico would gain its independence, a group of men staged an uprising in Ciales which became known as "El Levantamiento de Ciales" or the "Ciales Uprising of 1898" and proclaimed Puerto Rico to be a republic. The Spanish authorities who were unaware that the cease fire had been signed brutally suppressed the uprising Another reason which can explain why the campaign was short and not as violent as the others is that the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions where in Cuba defending that island against the American invaders.
As stated in the introduction, the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70% casualties which included their dead, wounded, MIA’s and prisoners. The Spanish, Puerto Ricans and Americans that participated in the campaign totaled 33,472. Of this total 18,000 were Spanish, 10,000 were Puerto Rican and 15,472 were American military personnel. The Spanish and Puerto Rican suffered 429 casualties which included 17 dead, 88 wouded and 324 captured. The American forces suffered 43 casualties: 3 dead and 40 wounded. The commander of Spain’s 6th Provisional Battalion, Julio Cervera Baviera gained notoriety as the author of a pamphlet
called La defensa de Puerto Rico
, which supported Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado and in an attempt to justify Spain’s defeat against the United States, falsely blamed the Puerto Rican volunteers in the Spanish Army of the fiasco A group of angry Sanjuaneros
agreed to challenge Cervera to a duel
if the commander did not retract his pamphlet. The men drew lots for this honor; it fell to José Janer y Soler and was seconded by Cayetano Coll y Toste
y Leonidas Villalón. Cervera’s seconds were Colonel Pedro del Pino and Captain Emilio Barrera. The duel never took place, as Cervera explained his intentions in writing the pamphlet, and all parties were satisfied.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898
, ratified on December 10, 1898, Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States. Spain had lost its last colony in the western hemisphere and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence. The United States established a military government and appointed Major General Nelson A. Miles the first head of the military government established on the island, acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs. Members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain. By October 18, the Spanish withdrawal from Puerto Rico was completed as the final troops left San Juan for Spain. Those who belonged to the Spanish military who decided to stay in Puerto Rico were offered the option by the United States to serve in the newly formed “Porto Rico Regiment
”. Some took the offer, such as Teófilo Marxuach
, a former Lieutenant in the Spanish Army who joined the regiment, and others, such as Capt. Angel Rivero Méndez, declined the offer and retired from the military.
and even though they were accustomed to the pacification and administration of the Native Americans
the U.S. Army had no previous experience in the administration of overseas territories. Major General Henry stated:
The administration of Puerto Rico was the responsibility of the United States Department of War
’s Division of Insular Affairs which was molded after the Bureau of Indian Affairs
. Almost immediately, the United States began the “Americanization
” process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico’s economy and polity
and did not apply democratic principles to the colony. Puerto Rico was classified as an “unincorporated territory” which meant that the protections of the United States Constitution
did not automatically apply because the island belonged to the U.S., but was not part of the U.S. In 1899, U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar
described Puerto Ricans as "uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine, women, music and dancing" and recommended that Spanish should be abolished in the island’s schools and only English should be taught. Schools became the primary vehicle of Americanization, and initially all classes were taught in English, which also made for a large dropout rate.
On January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to Porto Rico (On May 17, 1932, U.S. Congress changed the name back to "Puerto Rico") and the island’s currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the American dollar, integrating the island’s currency into the U.S. monetary system. The United States exerted their control over the economy of the island by prohibiting Puerto Rico from negotiating commercial treaties with other nations, from determining tariffs, and from shipping goods to the mainland on other than U.S. carriers.
a.k.a. “Aguila Blanca”. Maldonado, who operated in the areas of Juana Diaz and Ponce
, harassed the Spanish Civil Guard and later did the same to the American Forces. Another factor contributing to the state of civil disorder in the island was the lack of discipline of the American troops which were stationed in the island. These troops were not professional soldiers and were composed of volunteers. Many instances were reported where these men would act disorderly, under the influence of alcohol, and get into fights with the local residents. The state of civil disorder came to a halt in the island after the military government began to rebuilt Puerto Rico’s infrastructure, thereby providing employment for many of the discontent and unemployed population, and when the volunteer troops were replaced by the regular Army.
. However, the Act stipulated that the governor, chief of police and top officials were presidentially appointed and they were all to be Americans. The Foraker Act (with the influence of the American sugar companies) required the removal of a stipulation from a local law which placed a limit of 500 acre
s (approx. 202.34 hectare
) as the amount of land that any one person was allowed to own. Thus the Foraker Act, whose political framework was established by the military and the War Department, transformed Puerto Rico’s diversified agricultural economy (coffee, tobacco, sugar and fruit) into a sugar monoculture economy. Since many Puerto Ricans had 40% less wealth because of the currency change, the farmers had to borrow money from U.S. banks. But with no usury law restrictions, interest rates were so high that, within a decade, the farmers defaulted on their loans and the banks foreclosed on their land. American sugar companies had an advantage over the local sugar plantation owners. The local plantation owner could only finance his operations at local banks which offered high interest rates compared to the low rates that the American companies received from the commercial banks in Wall Street
. This factor, plus the tariffs now imposed, forced many of the local sugar plantation owners to go bankrupt or to sell their holdings to the more powerful American sugar companies. Sugar was considered one of the few strategic commodities in which the United States was not fully self sufficient. An example of the American conflict of interest which intertwined politics, the military and sugar commercial interests is Charles Herbert Allen
, the first American civilian appointed governor of the island. Allen was a former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and a strong promoter of sugar investments who believed that every acre of rich sugar land in Puerto Rico should be developed. He later became the president of the American Sugar Refining Company
, which had large holdings in Puerto Rico. By 1930, most of Puerto Rico’s farmlands belonged to 41 sugar syndicates. 80 percent of these were U.S. owned, and the largest four syndicates – Central Guanica, South Puerto Rico, Fajardo Sugar and East Puerto Rico Sugar – were entirely U.S. owned and covered over half the island’s arable land.
, which it first exercised in 1948. The Constitution of Puerto Rico
was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, and approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year. Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado (literally translated as "Free Associated State"), officially translated into English as Commonwealth
, for its body politic
.
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.Puerto Rico comprises an...
during the Spanish–American War
Spanish-American War
The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence...
. The offensive began on May 12, 1898, when the United States Navy
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
attacked the archipelago
Archipelago
An archipelago , sometimes called an island group, is a chain or cluster of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi- and πέλαγος – pélagos through the Italian arcipelago...
’s capital, San Juan
San Juan, Puerto Rico
San Juan , officially Municipio de la Ciudad Capital San Juan Bautista , is the capital and most populous municipality in Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 395,326 making it the 46th-largest city under the jurisdiction of...
. Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans were able to establish a blockade
Blockade
A blockade is an effort to cut off food, supplies, war material or communications from a particular area by force, either in part or totally. A blockade should not be confused with an embargo or sanctions, which are legal barriers to trade, and is distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually...
in the city’s harbor, San Juan Bay. On June 22, the cruiser Isabel II and the destroyer
Destroyer
In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against smaller, powerful, short-range attackers. Destroyers, originally called torpedo-boat destroyers in 1892, evolved from...
Terror delivered a Spanish counterattack, but were unable to break the blockade and the Terror was damaged.
The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Nelson A. Miles
Nelson A. Miles
Nelson Appleton Miles was a United States soldier who served in the American Civil War, Indian Wars, and the Spanish-American War.-Early life:Miles was born in Westminster, Massachusetts, on his family's farm...
disembarked of the coast of Guánica
Guánica, Puerto Rico
Guánica is a municipality in southwestern Puerto Rico located on southern coast, bordering the Caribbean Sea, south of Sabana Grande, east of Lajas, and west of Yauco. It is part of the Yauco Metropolitan Statistical Area....
. After controlling the first skirmish, the Americans advanced to Coamo
Coamo, Puerto Rico
Coamo is a municipality in Puerto Rico located in the southern region, north of Santa Isabel; south of Orocovis and Barranquitas; east of Villalba and Juana Díaz; and west of Aibonito and Salinas. Coamo is spread over 10 wards and Coamo Pueblo...
, where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle. The battle concluded when the allied soldiers retreated after the battle left two dead on their side, and four on the American side. The United States was able to seize control of Fajardo
Fajardo, Puerto Rico
Fajardo is a small city in Puerto Rico located in the east region of the island, bordering the Atlantic Ocean, north of Ceiba and east of Luquillo.Fajardo is spread over 7 wards and Downtown Fajardo , which serves as the administrative center of the city...
on August 1, but were forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican-Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city, while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse. The Americans encountered larger opposition as they advanced towards the main island’s interior. They engaged in two crossfires in Guamani River and Coamo
Coamo, Puerto Rico
Coamo is a municipality in Puerto Rico located in the southern region, north of Santa Isabel; south of Orocovis and Barranquitas; east of Villalba and Juana Díaz; and west of Aibonito and Salinas. Coamo is spread over 10 wards and Coamo Pueblo...
, both of which were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated. A battle in San Germán
San Germán, Puerto Rico
San Germán is a municipality located in the southwestern region of Puerto Rico, south of Mayagüez and Maricao; north of Lajas; east of Hormigueros and Cabo Rojo; and west of Sabana Grande. San Germán is spread over 18 wards and San Germán Pueblo...
concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares
Lares, Puerto Rico
Lares is a small mountain municipality of Puerto Rico's central-western area located north of Maricao and Yauco; south of Camuy, east of San Sebastián and Las Marias; and west of Hatillo, Utuado and Adjuntas. Lares is spread over 10 wards and Lares Pueblo...
.
On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito
Aibonito, Puerto Rico
Aibonito is a small mountain town in Puerto Rico located in the Mountain range of Cayey, north of Salinas; south of Barranquitas and Comerio; east of Coamo; and west of Cidra, and Cayey. Aibonito is spread over 8 wards and Aibonito Pueblo...
and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. In the subsequent crossfire, confused soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and five American officers were gravely injured, which prompted a retreat order. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U.S. President William McKinley
William McKinley
William McKinley, Jr. was the 25th President of the United States . He is best known for winning fiercely fought elections, while supporting the gold standard and high tariffs; he succeeded in forging a Republican coalition that for the most part dominated national politics until the 1930s...
and French Ambassador Jules Cambon
Jules Cambon
Jules-Martin Cambon was a French diplomat.He began his career as a lawyer , served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service in 1871...
, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice
Armistice
An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territories of Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines and Guam.
Prelude to the Puerto Rican Campaign
Isthmus
An isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas usually with waterforms on either side.Canals are often built through isthmuses where they may be particularly advantageous to create a shortcut for marine transportation...
.
This idea was not new, since William H. Seward
William H. Seward
William Henry Seward, Sr. was the 12th Governor of New York, United States Senator and the United States Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson...
, the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents, among them Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He successfully led his country through a great constitutional, military and moral crisis – the American Civil War – preserving the Union, while ending slavery, and...
and Ulysses Grant, had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras
Honduras
Honduras is a republic in Central America. It was previously known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became the modern-day state of Belize...
, Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
or Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba.
Captain Mahan made the following statement to the War Department:
Naval War College
The Naval War College is an education and research institution of the United States Navy that specializes in developing ideas for naval warfare and passing them along to officers of the Navy. The college is located on the grounds of Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island...
had been formulating plans for war with Spain. By 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked: sugar.
Following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor, Cuba, the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba. In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States, and on April 23, 1898, Spain declared war
Declaration of war
A declaration of war is a formal act by which one nation goes to war against another. The declaration is a performative speech act by an authorized party of a national government in order to create a state of war between two or more states.The legality of who is competent to declare war varies...
. On April 25, the U.S. Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20. One of the United States' principal objectives in the Spanish-American War was to take control of Spanish possessions in the Atlantic — Puerto Rico and Cuba — and their possessions in the Pacific — the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
and Guam
Guam
Guam is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States located in the western Pacific Ocean. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government. Guam is listed as one of 16 Non-Self-Governing Territories by the Special Committee on Decolonization of the United...
.
On April 27, U.S. ships, the monitor
Monitor (warship)
A monitor was a class of relatively small warship which was neither fast nor strongly armoured but carried disproportionately large guns. They were used by some navies from the 1860s until the end of World War II, and saw their final use by the United States Navy during the Vietnam War.The monitors...
, the armored cruiser
Armored cruiser
The armored cruiser was a type of warship of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Like other types of cruiser, the armored cruiser was a long-range, independent warship, capable of defeating any ship apart from a battleship, and fast enough to outrun any battleships it encountered.The first...
s , and the , bombarded the Spanish fortifications at Matanzas Bay in Cuba and, by July 16, an armistice
Armistice
An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
was signed at the Arbol de La Paz (a large ceiba
Ceiba
Ceiba is the name of a genus of many species of large trees found in tropical areas, including Mexico, Central America, South America, The Bahamas, Belize and the Caribbean, West Africa, and Southeast Asia...
tree) by U.S. and Spanish forces. The United States then dispatched its fleet to Puerto Rico. Two prominent leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, Dr. Julio J. Henna
Julio J. Henna
Julio J. Henna was a Puerto Rican physician and political figure. Henna participated in the founding of the Puerto Rico Section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party in New York. He later supported the annexation of Puerto Rico to the United States....
and Roberto H. Todd, had written to U.S. President McKinley asking that Puerto Rico be included in whatever intervention was planned for Cuba as early as March 10. They even provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island.
Spanish preparations
With the outbreak of war, the Spanish Crown sent the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions to defend Cuba against the American invaders, depleting the Puerto Rican troops in the island. The 1st Puerto Rican Provisional Battalion, composed of the Talavera Cavalry and Krupp artillery, was sent to Santiago de CubaSantiago de Cuba
Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city of Cuba and capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island, some south-east of the Cuban capital of Havana....
where they battled the American forces in the Battle of San Juan Hill
Battle of San Juan Hill
The Battle of San Juan Hill , also known as the battle for the San Juan Heights, was a decisive battle of the Spanish-American War. The San Juan heights was a north-south running elevation about two kilometers east of Santiago de Cuba. The names San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill were names given by the...
. After the battle, the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70% casualties which included their dead, wounded, MIA’s and prisoners. The Spanish appointed Governor of Puerto Rico
Governor of Puerto Rico
The Governor of Puerto Rico is the Head of Government of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Since 1948, the Governor has been elected by the people of Puerto Rico...
, Manuel Macías y Casado
Manuel Macías y Casado
Manuel Macías y Casado was a Spanish general. He served as Governor-General of Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War and as governor of Melilla , and occupied various other posts. Born in Teruel, Spain, Macías attended the Colegio de Infantería and became a sub-lieutenant at the age of 17....
, declared martial law
Martial law
Martial law is the imposition of military rule by military authorities over designated regions on an emergency basis— only temporary—when the civilian government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively , when there are extensive riots and protests, or when the disobedience of the law...
, resolving to resist the American forces. He declared: “Providence will not permit that in these countries which were discovered by the Spanish nation the echo of our language should ever cease to be heard, nor that our flag should disappear before the eyes…. Long live Puerto Rico, always Spanish. Long live Spain.” Macías y Casado hoped that a grant of autonomy
Autonomy
Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...
would ensure that Puerto Ricans would remain loyal to the Spanish crown.
American preparations
According to a story published in Century magazine in September 1898, Edwin Emerson,Jr. was pretending to be a German journalist. He presented himself to the German Consul in St. Thomas and asked for the names of Puerto Ricans of German descent whom he could interview. Among the names which the consul gave him were that of the Riefkohl family of the town of Maunabo. Upon his arrival in the town of Maunabo he met 14 year old Rudolph W. Riefkohl
Rudolph W. Riefkohl
Colonel Rudolph William Riefkohl , was an officer in the United States Army, who played an instrumental role in helping the people of Poland overcome the 1919 typhus epidemic.-Early years:...
and asked the lad in German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
if he had a map of Puerto Rico (Emerson had lost his). Riefkohl answered that he did, however it was decidedly too big for Emerson’s use. Riefkohl returned home, not knowing that Emerson was a spy, and quickly drew another with a depiction of the major ports and harbors of Puerto Rico. Emerson used the map and it is believed by some that he may have given the map to General Nelson A. Miles, influencing the general’s decision as to the disembarkation points for the invasion of Puerto Rico. A photostatic copy of Riefkohl’s map was published in the Century article.
First Actions
On May 8, 1898, USS Yale captured a Spanish freighter, the Rita in San Juan Bay, thus being the first hostile encounter between the warring sides in Puerto Rico. On May 9, Yale fought a brief battle with an auxiliary cruiser of Spain, name unknown, resulting in a Spanish victory. Around this time, Captain Ángel Rivero MéndezÁngel Rivero Méndez
Ángel Rivero Méndez was a Puerto Rican soldier, writer, journalist and a businessman who is credited with inventing the "Kola Champagne" soft drink...
was assigned the command of the Spanish forces in the fortress of San Cristóbal in San Juan. On May 10, the Yale returned to San Juan Bay, Rivero-Méndez ordered his men to open fire upon the using an Ordoñez 15 centimeter cannon, thus becoming the first attack against the Americans in Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War
Spanish-American War
The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence...
. For his actions, Captain Rivero-Mendez was awarded the "Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar" (The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class.
Bombardment of San Juan
Bombardment of San Juan
The Bombardment of San Juan, or the First Battle of San Juan, on 12 May 1898 was an engagement of the Spanish-American War, between United States Navy warships and the Spanish fortifications of San Juan, Puerto Rico.-Background:...
or the First Battle of San Juan (not to be confused with the Battle of San Juan Hill
Battle of San Juan Hill
The Battle of San Juan Hill , also known as the battle for the San Juan Heights, was a decisive battle of the Spanish-American War. The San Juan heights was a north-south running elevation about two kilometers east of Santiago de Cuba. The names San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill were names given by the...
or the Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua
Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua
The Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua was one of several important battles that took place during the Anglo-Spanish War, a subconflict of the Seven Years' War which lasted from December 1761 until February 1763...
) refers to an American naval
Navy
A navy is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake- or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions...
attack on the fortification
Fortification
Fortifications are military constructions and buildings designed for defence in warfare and military bases. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs...
s of San Juan, Puerto Rico
San Juan, Puerto Rico
San Juan , officially Municipio de la Ciudad Capital San Juan Bautista , is the capital and most populous municipality in Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 395,326 making it the 46th-largest city under the jurisdiction of...
during the Spanish-American War
Spanish-American War
The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence...
.
For weeks, the United States Navy
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
had been anxiously awaiting the arrival of the Spanish fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete
Pascual Cervera y Topete
Pascual Cervera y Topete served as an admiral of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron during the Spanish-American War, and prior to this served his country in a variety of military and political roles....
, unaware that he had already eluded them and slipped his squadron into the Bay of Santiago
Santiago de Cuba
Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city of Cuba and capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island, some south-east of the Cuban capital of Havana....
.
On May 12, U.S. Admiral William T. Sampson
William T. Sampson
William Thomas Sampson was a United States Navy rear admiral known for his victory in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba during the Spanish-American War.-Biography:...
and a fleet of 10 American ships arrived in San Juan to bombarded the city's citadels. After causing much damage to the Spanish defenses and receiving minor damage, low on coal
Coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure...
and ammunition, Sampson ordered a cease fire and returned to Havana
Havana
Havana is the capital city, province, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba. The city proper has a population of 2.1 million inhabitants, and it spans a total of — making it the largest city in the Caribbean region, and the most populous...
, Cuba
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
and then to Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
for repairs and supplies.
The residents of San Juan were furious with Rivero and blamed him for the destruction caused to their city by the American bombardments. Nothing came of those accusations and Capt. Rivero-Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain Henry A. Reed of the U.S. Army after the Treaty of Paris of 1898
Treaty of Paris (1898)
The Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed on December 10, 1898, at the end of the Spanish-American War, and came into effect on April 11, 1899, when the ratifications were exchanged....
was signed.
Second Battle of San Juan
On June 22, 1898, the under the command of Captain Charles Sigsbee arrived at San Juan Bay from CubaCuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
and joined the blockade. Shortly after midday an old Spanish cruiser named set off from San Juan to engage the Saint Paul under protection of shore batteries. She opened fire on Saint Paul at long range without success in an attempt to break the blockade. , a Spanish destroyer docked in San Juan for repairs, attempted to cover the cruiser’s escape with a torpedo
Torpedo
The modern torpedo is a self-propelled missile weapon with an explosive warhead, launched above or below the water surface, propelled underwater towards a target, and designed to detonate either on contact with it or in proximity to it.The term torpedo was originally employed for...
attack but was thwarted when her rudder was put out of action by a direct hit from the Saint Paul. The breaking of the Terror’s rudder caused the ship to turn, allowing the Saint Paul to score direct hits near the Terror’s waterline, disabling one of her engines and causing her to list. The Terror gave up the attack and returned to port, followed by Isabel II. On June 26 the Saint Paul was relieved by the , which continued to blockade the port.
Third Battle of San Juan
On June 28, 1898, two American cruisers foughtThird Battle of San Juan (1898)
The Third Battle of San Juan began on 28 June 1898 when a Spanish blockade runner was intercepted by an American auxiliary cruiser. A Spanish squadron attempted to rescue the blockade runner and succeeded in taking off supplies and her crew but failed to save the ship, which was engaged by the...
with a squadron of Spanish warships. This squadron consisted of one cruiser, two gunboats and one blockade runner. During the engagement, the Spanish blockade runner was heavily damaged by the American ships and ran aground. About a week later the a U.S. cruiser destroyed the runner where she was stuck.
Landing in Guánica
The Spanish forces expected the Americans to attack the northern region of the island and concentrated their defenses around San Juan and Arecibo. The Spanish government was also aware of a planned landing by the Americans in Fajardo, located on the east coast and had that city fortified. However, the southern and western regions of Puerto Rico were left with little or no defenses at all.After Cuba was taken, President McKinley approved the land invasion of Puerto Rico by way of Fajardo, taking into consideration that the Spaniards had fortified San Juan, where they expected the initial attack. A convoy of ships left Tampa, Florida
Tampa, Florida
Tampa is a city in the U.S. state of Florida. It serves as the county seat for Hillsborough County. Tampa is located on the west coast of Florida. The population of Tampa in 2010 was 335,709....
and on July 21 another convoy, which included the USS Yale, USS Massachusetts, USS Gloucester and the USS Dixie, departed from Guantánamo
Guantánamo
Guantánamo is a municipality and city in southeast Cuba and capital of Guantánamo Province.Guantánamo is served by the Caimanera port and the site of a famous U.S. Naval base. The area produces sugarcane and cotton wool...
for a 4 day journey to Puerto Rico.
Major General Nelson A. Miles
Nelson A. Miles
Nelson Appleton Miles was a United States soldier who served in the American Civil War, Indian Wars, and the Spanish-American War.-Early life:Miles was born in Westminster, Massachusetts, on his family's farm...
, Commanding General of the Army, was aboard the USS Yale. While approaching the Strait of Mona of Puerto Rico, Miles opted to land his troops in the southern region of the island, picking Guánica
Guánica, Puerto Rico
Guánica is a municipality in southwestern Puerto Rico located on southern coast, bordering the Caribbean Sea, south of Sabana Grande, east of Lajas, and west of Yauco. It is part of the Yauco Metropolitan Statistical Area....
as his landing zone. He sent patrol boats to notify all other convoys of his decision and order them to join him. His decision was based on his belief that the city of Fajardo would be fortified and he feared that small gun boats based on the shore could disrupt a landing there.
On July 25, Miles and a convoy of ships, under the command of Naval Captain Francis J. Higginson, arrived at Guánica Bay. The following troop carrying ships were part of the convoy:
USS Yale with Generals Miles and Garretson
George A. Garretson
George Armstrong Garretson enlisted as private in the Union Army during the Civil War and later graduated from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York. He returned to duty for the Spanish American War as a Brigadier-general of U.S. Volunteers. In civilian life he held many prominent...
, plus 1,300 infantry soldiers of the 3,300 total that were assigned for the initial invasion, , USS Lampasas, , USS Comanche with General Guy V. Henry, Nueces, USS Unionist, USS Stillwater, Rita and USS Specialist (both the Nueces and the Rita were Spanish ships which were confiscated by the Yale). These ships were accompanied by the following battleships, destroyers and cruisers: the flagship , , and .
In 1898, Guánica was a small barrio
Barrio
Barrio is a Spanish word meaning district or neighborhood.-Usage:In its formal usage in English, barrios are generally considered cohesive places, sharing, for example, a church and traditions such as feast days...
within the jurisdiction of the town of Yauco
Yauco, Puerto Rico
Yauco is a city and municipality in southwestern Puerto Rico located in the southern coast of the island by the Caribbean, south of Maricao, Lares and Adjuntas; east of Sabana Grande and Guánica; and west of Guayanilla. Yauco is spread over 20 wards and Yauco Pueblo...
. It had 60 houses in all and its only defense was eleven members of the 4th Volante de Yauco, a Puerto Rican militia unit, under the command of Lieutenant Enrique Méndez López. When the Guánica lighthouse
Guánica Light
Guánica Light was a historic lighthouse located in the town of Guánica, Puerto Rico in the Guánica State Forest. It was first lit in 1893 and deactivated on 1950...
keeper Robustiano Rivera spotted the approaching convoy, he immediately gave the alert to the residents of the barrio. All of the residents, with the exception Agustín Barrenechea, Vicente Ferrer, Juan María Morciglio, Simón Mejil, Salvador Muñoz, Cornelio Serrano and Pascual Elena who welcomed the invaders, abandoned their homes and joined Rivera on his journey to Yauco where he broke the news of the invading forces to the city’s mayor.
First skirmish
The Gloucester was the first ship to set anchor in the Bay of Guánica. Twenty-eight sailors and MarinesUnited States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
, under the command of Lieutenants H. P. Huse and Wood, departed from the ship on rafts and landed on the beach. The Marines lowered the Spanish flag from the beach flagpole and replaced it with the American flag. They then proceeded to set up a machine gun nest and placed barbed wire
Barbed wire
Barbed wire, also known as barb wire , is a type of fencing wire constructed with sharp edges or points arranged at intervals along the strand. It is used to construct inexpensive fences and is used atop walls surrounding secured property...
around their perimeter. The first land skirmish in Puerto Rico between the Puerto Rican militia and the American forces occurred when Lt. Méndez López and his men attacked and opened fire on the Americans. During the small battle which followed, the Americans returned fire with their machine gun and the Gloucester began to bombard the Spanish position. Lt. Méndez López and three of his men were wounded and the militia unit was forced to retreat to the town of Yauco.
Invasion
Secretary of War Russell A. Alger
Russell A. Alger
Russell Alexander Alger was the 20th Governor and U.S. Senator from the state of Michigan and also U.S. Secretary of War during the Presidential administration of William McKinley...
learned about the landing at Guanica the next day when he read an Associated Press
Associated Press
The Associated Press is an American news agency. The AP is a cooperative owned by its contributing newspapers, radio and television stations in the United States, which both contribute stories to the AP and use material written by its staff journalists...
report in a local Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
newspaper. The War Department had ordered Miles to invade Puerto Rico by way of San Juan and therefore Alger was completely surprised with the report. Miles would have been subject to disciplinary actions had the invasion not gone so smoothly. Alger received the following cable from Miles three days after the invasion:
Battle of Yauco
After Rivera, the keeper of the Guánica lighthouse, notified Atilio Gaztambide, the mayor of the town of Yauco, located six miles (10 km) north of Guánica, of the American invasion of Guánica, the mayor in turn notified Governor Macías via telegraph. Governor Macías ordered Captain Salvador Meca and his 3rd company of the 25th Patria Battalion from Yauco to head for Guánica. Meca and his men were joined by Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig, who assumed command of the Spanish forces at Hacienda Desideria two miles (3 km) from Guánica. Puig arrived with two companies known as "Cazador Patria Battalion", and they were joined by Puerto Rican volunteers, the Civil Guards, and mounted guerrillas from the towns of Yauco and Sabana GrandeSabana Grande, Puerto Rico
Sabana Grande is a municipality of Puerto Rico located north of Lajas and Guánica; south of Maricao; east of San Germán; and west of Yauco. Sabana Grande is spread over seven wards and Sabana Grande Pueblo...
. Puig had the men positioned on both sides of the road that ran from Guánica to the coffee Hacienda Desideria (owned by Antonio Mariani) in Yauco, as well as an infantry company positioned on a hill south of the hacienda.
In the meantime, Garretson, set out of Guánica with his men towards Yauco with the intention of capturing the Yauco rail terminus that ran between that town and the City of Ponce
Ponce, Puerto Rico
Ponce is both a city and a municipality in the southern part of Puerto Rico. The city is the seat of the municipal government.The city of Ponce, the fourth most populated in Puerto Rico, and the most populated outside of the San Juan metropolitan area, is named for Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, the...
, the largest city in the southern region of the island. Garretson and his men arrived in the darkness of night and was informed by his scouts of the possibility of a hostile situation at the Hacienda Desideria. He ordered the Illinois company and two companies (companies L and M) of the 6th Massachusetts to occupy a small hill on his right that overlooked the hacienda.
Arecibo
Arecibo may refer to:*Arecibo, Puerto Rico, a municipality located by the Atlantic Ocean*Arecibo Observatory, a very sensitive radio telescope located approximately south-southwest from the city of Arecibo...
on the northern coast of the island on July 29. Col. Puig, believing that he would be dishonored and accused by the Spanish Government of abandoning military equipment during his retreat, committed suicide on August 2.
Major General Nelson A. Miles, upon learning about the lack of discipline of the 6th Massachusetts during the battle, ordered an investigation. The 6th Massachusetts was sent on a hard march from Guánica to Ponce as punishment and the regimental commander, a lieutenant colonel, a major, and a captain resigned upon request.
Battle of Fajardo
On August 1, the under the command of Captain Frederic W. Rodgers, was sailing by the coastline of the city of Fajardo, when Rogers noticed the "Faro de Las Cabezas de San Juan" (Cape San Juan lighthouseCape San Juan Light
Cape San Juan Light is a historic lighthouse located on the northeastern part of the highest point of Cape San Juan in Fajardo, Puerto Rico. The lighthouse was constructed in 1880 and was officially lit on May 2, 1882...
) which was supposed to be the landing site for the US Army in Puerto Rico. Rodgers ordered some of his men ashore, which included Puerto Rican volunteers, with the mission of posting the American Flag atop the lighthouse.
On August 2, three more ships, the , USS Leyden
USS Leyden
USS Leyden has been the name of more than one United States Navy ship, and may refer to:*USS Leyden , an armed tug in commission from 1866 to 1903, a naval auxiliary in commission from 1944 to 1945...
, and the arrived and joined the Puritan. The 25-man Spanish garrison stationed in the city became aware of the American presence and, after notifying their superiors in San Juan, were told to withdraw. When Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada, the mayor of the city, realized that the garrison was gone and that the city was defenseless against the invading Americans, he implored the Spanish authorities in San Juan to dispatch troops to defend his city. Believing that the Spanish forces would not come to his aid, Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada then went to the lighthouse to seek protection for the city from the Americans. On the afternoon of August 3, Dr. Veve Calzada entered the city with a contingent of Marines
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
and the United States flag was hoisted over the Fajardo Customs House and City Hall.
On August 4, Governor General Macias sent Colonel Pedro del Pino and 200 men to recapture the city. When Colonel Pino entered Fajardo he found it nearly deserted because the residents, fearing a battle, had fled to the Fajardo lighthouse. Pino waited until darkness fell and then ordered his men to attack the lighthouse. The Marines signaled the ships that they were under attack and the ships began to bombard the shore in a protective pattern. The Spanish forces retreated back to the city.
The following day U.S. Marine
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
Lieutenant John A. Lejeune
John A. Lejeune
Lieutenant General John Archer Lejeune, was the 13th Commandant of the Marine Corps. Known as the "greatest of all Leathernecks" and the "Marine's Marine", he served for nearly 40 years. His service included commanding the U.S...
came ashore with a detachment of Marines and evacuated the civilians and Marines for transport to Ponce, and the lighthouse was abandoned. Meanwhile, in the City of Fajardo, Pino’s men tore down the United States flags that flew over the Customs House and City Hall and returned to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was abandoned, displaying the flags as his trophies of war. It was the only time that American forces were forced to withdraw from any position during the campaign in Puerto Rico.
Battle of Guayama
After the town of Yauco was taken, Major General Nelson A. Miles decided to attack the City of PoncePonce, Puerto Rico
Ponce is both a city and a municipality in the southern part of Puerto Rico. The city is the seat of the municipal government.The city of Ponce, the fourth most populated in Puerto Rico, and the most populated outside of the San Juan metropolitan area, is named for Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, the...
by sea and by land. Garretson’s 6th Illinois and 6th Massachusetts had returned to Guanica and after the troops rested, Garretson and his men were ordered to move eastward to Ponce. Lt. Col. Rafael Martinez Illecas, in charge of the Spanish forces in that city, had pulled out, leaving behind a small garrison of 300 volunteers to hold the town. When the American forces arrived in Ponce they met no resistance and the Spanish volunteers surrendered to the invaders. The American forces were not the only ones who participated in the taking of Ponce. Members of the Puerto Rican Commission, which included the leader of the Intentona de Yauco
Intentona de Yauco
The Intentona de Yauco a.k.a. the "Attempted Coup of Yauco" of 1897, was the second and last major revolt against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico, staged by Puerto Rico's pro-independence movement....
revolt, Antonio Mattei Lluberas
Antonio Mattei Lluberas
Antonio Mattei Lluberas , was a businessman and politician who in 1897 planned and led the second and last major uprising against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico, known as the Intentona de Yauco.-Early years:...
and his group, arrived in Ponce aboard the USS St. Louis and were assigned to the headquarters of General Miles. From this group Miles organized the "Porto Rican Scouts", which was later assigned to General Theodore Schwan, under the command of Edwardo Lugo Viñas. Miles then ordered Brigadier General Peter G. Hains and the men of the 3rd Illinois, 4th Ohio and 4th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiments to take Arroyo
Arroyo, Puerto Rico
Arroyo is a municipality located along the southern coast of Puerto Rico and bordered by the Caribbean Sea, east of the municipality of Guayama and northwest of the municipality of Patillas. Arroyo is spread over 5 wards and Arroyo Pueblo...
, a small port 60 miles east of Ponce that served the larger, nearby coastal town of Guayama
Guayama, Puerto Rico
Guayama is a municipality of Puerto Rico founded on January 29, 1736 and located on the Southern Coastal Valley region, bordering the Caribbean, south of Cayey; east of Salinas; and west of Patillas and Arroyo. Guayama is spread over 9 wards and Guayama Pueblo...
. Arroyo was taken on August 2 and on August 5 Hanes ordered the 4th Ohio, the 3rd Illinois and a battery of Sims-Dudley guns, manned by Company G of the 4th Ohio, to capture Guayama.
Casa Cautiño
Casa Cautiño is a house museum located in the town of Guayama, Puerto Rico. The museum collection administered by the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture include works of art, wood carvings, sculptures and furniture built by Puerto Rican cabinetmakers for the Cautiño family...
) by the town square in Guayama as his military headquarters.
Battle of the Guamani River Bridge
On August 6, Colonel Coit sent two companies of the 4th Ohio on a reconnaissance mission across and beyond a cast iron bridge that crossed the Río Guanamí (Guamani River). The road beyond the bridge was essential for General Hains' projected advance to the town of Cayey. The 4th Ohio observed elements of Spain’s 6th Provisional Battalion under the command of Julio Cervera BavieraJulio Cervera Baviera
Julio Cervera Baviera was a Spanish engineer, pioneer in the development of radio, educator, explorer, and military man. He also authored various scientific and geographic books and articles.-Education:...
entrenched in Guanamí Heights, six miles north of the bridge. The 4th felt that they were too strongly entrenched to attempt an assault at the time. The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9, attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted. The numerical superiority of the Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guanami Heights. This battle was the costliest battle yet for the Americans since their landing at Guanica, as it resulted in seven wounded. The Spanish forces suffered 2 dead and 15 wounded.
Battle of Coamo
Shortly after the American soldiers disembarked, a group of Spanish and Puerto Rican units began moving from Ponce to Aibonito, marching through the Carretera CentralCarretera Central (Puerto Rico)
-Route description:The highway runs from San Juan, the largest city in Puerto Rico, located on the north coast to Ponce, the second largest, on the south coast, via Caguas, Cayey, Aibonito, Coamo, and Juana Diaz...
(Central Road). The caravan was composed of two companies of the Batallón de Cazadores de la Patria (Battalion of the Motherland’s Hunters) and some members of the Civil Guard and a Puerto Rican guerilla force. A total of 248 infantry men and 42 members of the cavalry formed the battalions under the command of Lt. Col. Rafael Martínez Illescas, the same person who was in charge of the Ponce garrison. Traveling by foot, the journey would last two days. The group decided to spend one night in the resort of the town of Coamo known as the Baños de Coamo before continuing their march in the morning. Martínez Illescas immediately ordered the construction of several trenches; while building these, the soldiers were ambushed by an anti-Spanish guerilla force, led by Pedro María Descartes, who managed to kill a member of the Civil Guard.
Meanwhile, two battalions of volunteers from Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
and Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
, led by Generals Oswald H. Ernst and James H. Wilson
James H. Wilson
James Harrison Wilson was a United States Army topographic engineer, a Union Army Major General in the American Civil War and later wars, a railroad executive, and author.-Early life and engineering:...
, settled on opposite sides of the road to Coamo. On August 9, 1898, the Americans began their offensive, opening cannon fire against the city and completing their attack with artillery fire, the 3rd and 4th Regular Pennsylvania Artillery to provide artillery support for the frontal assault on the Baños, damaging the resort. The Americans intended to encircle and defeat the defenses in the city. A group of soldiers entered the city from the backside, having advanced through a river nearby. The rear assault was reinforced by Wilson’s army under General Ernst, attempting to trap the allied soldiers in a crossfire, employing a tactic known as the pincer movement
Pincer movement
The pincer movement or double envelopment is a military maneuver. The flanks of the opponent are attacked simultaneously in a pinching motion after the opponent has advanced towards the center of an army which is responding by moving its outside forces to the enemy's flanks, in order to surround it...
. Martínez Illescas was surprised by the attack and led an improvised attack, but he was killed in the crossfire along with his second-in-command, leaving Captain Hita in charge, who ordered his men to surrender. Half of the allied troops ignored the order, and continued the attack, Troop C galloped at top speed north from the Baños de Coamo, after finding the resort abandoned by the Spanish. Hita’s men were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp located a Río Descalabrado, while the men who continued to attack retreated to Aibonito when they realized that the Americans were using the pincer movement tactic.
Battle of Silva Heights
Brigadier General Theodore SchwanTheodore Schwan
Theodore Schwan was a Union Army officer during the American Civil War who received the Medal of Honor for his actions at the Battle of Peebles' Farm. He also served with distinction during the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars.-Early life and Civil War:Schwan was born in Hanover,...
and 2,896 men of his Independent Brigade had landed in Guanica and marched towards occupied Yauco. Schwan and his men were ordered to move westward and to capture the city of Mayagüez
Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
Mayagüez is the eighth-largest municipality of Puerto Rico. Originally founded as "Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria" it is also known as "La Sultana del Oeste" , "Ciudad de las Aguas Puras" , or "Ciudad del Mangó"...
. Colonel Julio Soto Villanueva ordered 1,500 Spanish Regulars of the 24th Rifle Battalion, six companies of the Alfonso XIII auxiliaries, and other scattered Spanish and Puerto Rican guerilla forces dispatched from the garrison at Mayagüez to meet and defeat Schwan. The Spanish forces entrenched themselves at a high ridge called Silva Heights, located at a road near the town of Hormigueros
Hormigueros, Puerto Rico
Hormigueros is a municipality of Puerto Rico located in the western region of the island, northeast of Cabo Rojo; northwest of San Germán; and south of Mayagüez. Hormigueros is spread over 5 wards and Hormigueros Pueblo...
.
Schwan’s troops arrived in the town of San Germán
San Germán, Puerto Rico
San Germán is a municipality located in the southwestern region of Puerto Rico, south of Mayagüez and Maricao; north of Lajas; east of Hormigueros and Cabo Rojo; and west of Sabana Grande. San Germán is spread over 18 wards and San Germán Pueblo...
and continued the march towards their objective. Troop A of Schwan’s 5th Cavalry approached Silva Heights and were soon engaged in a firefight when the Spanish forces opened fire. The Americans were aided by two companies of the 19th Infantry, supported by artillery and Gatling gun
Gatling gun
The Gatling gun is one of the best known early rapid-fire weapons and a forerunner of the modern machine gun. It is well known for its use by the Union forces during the American Civil War in the 1860s, which was the first time it was employed in combat...
s, as well as the 11th Infantry. The Spanish forces retreated after the American reinforcements brought them under intense fire.
Schwan’s men set up camp on Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez. They arrived the following morning to find that the Spanish forces had abandoned the city to retreat to the east towards Lares
Lares, Puerto Rico
Lares is a small mountain municipality of Puerto Rico's central-western area located north of Maricao and Yauco; south of Camuy, east of San Sebastián and Las Marias; and west of Hatillo, Utuado and Adjuntas. Lares is spread over 10 wards and Lares Pueblo...
. Schwan did not follow Soto Villanueva, but instead was ordered to take the town of Las Marías
Las Marías, Puerto Rico
Las Marías is a municipality of Puerto Rico located north of Maricao; southeast of Añasco; south of San Sebastián; east of Mayagüez; and west of Lares...
. The outcome of the Silva Heights Battle left 3 Spanish dead, 6 wounded, and 136 prisoners. Schwan’s brigade suffered 15 wounded and 2 killed in action.
Battle of Asomante
The American cavalry pursued the soldiers that had retreated from Coamo, but were not able to reach them until the units had entered Aibonito Pass, a region more commonly known as Asomante. The region had been prepared by allied Puerto Rican and Spanish troops, who had built a trench and placed soldiers and equipment around the foliage. As soon as the soldiers noticed the presence of the invading unit they opened cannon fire. The cavalry received infantry reinforcements, which were received by battery fire. Six American soldiers were injured in the crossfire, prompting a retreat order. The allied units (Spanish and Puerto Rican) lost five soldiers and two civil guards. During the following two days the Americans decided to do a battlefield reconnaissanceReconnaissance
Reconnaissance is the military term for exploring beyond the area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about enemy forces or features of the environment....
and Colonel S. Reber, developed a croquis
Croquis
Croquis drawing is quick and sketchy drawing of a live model. Croquis drawings are usually made in a few minutes, after which the model changes pose and another croquis is drawn....
of the Aibonito Pass. Spies were deployed throughout Coamo, including a Puerto Rican separatist named Carlos Patterne, who was able to enter the city without suspicion and contact Rufino Huertas, a separatist teacher. Huertas gave Patterne a series of defense plans that were previously developed and organized by Martínez Illescas. While inactive, the Puerto Rican soldiers deployed in Asomante completed rounds every two hours, working four hours daily. They mostly ate beans, some rice and meat, while conserving several cracker packs for Spanish reinforcements that were supposed to arrive. They slept in improvised huts that did not protect them from the rain.
The American commanders decided to attack the trenches with artillery, while sending a large group to Barranquitas
Barranquitas, Puerto Rico
Barranquitas is a small mountain town located in the central region of Puerto Rico, south of Corozal and Naranjito; north of Coamo and Aibonito; west of Comerío and Cidra; and east of Orocovis. Barranquitas is spread over 6 wards and Barranquitas Pueblo...
, from which they would try to attack the allied troops from the back. At 10:30 a.m. Captain R.D. Potts led part of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment through the central highway to Aibonito. Lieutenants Bliss and O'Hern led two units with similar equipment. At 1:00 p.m. the allied troops opened cannon fire as the Americans entered their range. Potts ordered the deployment of two batteries while O'Hern received orders from Commander Landcaster to set a cannon at a distance of a 100 yards to the vanguard’s right. They intended to defeat the a small group led by Captain Hernaíz. Shrapnel from allied cannon fire was falling close to Lancaster’s location, and he asked Potts to help him by deploying a battery nearby. One of Hernaíz’s Placensias cannons overheated, which forced him to order a temporary cease to the offensive. Landcaster believed that the opposition had been annihilated, ordered an advance. However the allied fire was renewed, this time supported by Mauser
Mauser
Mauser was a German arms manufacturer of a line of bolt-action rifles and pistols from the 1870s to 1995. Mauser designs were built for the German armed forces...
rifle fire. The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby. Fearing that the allied units could capture the American equipment, Landcaster ordered a retreat. Lieutenant Hains was gravely injured by a Mauser bullet, being replaced by Sergeant John Long. Meanwhile, most of Potts' men fled the battlefield. In the crossfire the allied forces overpowered the American infantry, using Mauser fire to disorganize their artillery, during which time four American officials were gravely injured including Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Sawanson. Private Frederick Yough, Corporal August Yank, George J. Bruce and Private Sices also received injuries, with Yough subsequently dying. Harris' position was filled by O'Hern, while Sawanson was fatally shot while trying to support the artillery. In total the allied units had only an injured artillery man, while the American side had two dead and five injured. Wilson’s camp was the first to receive a telegram from General Miles notifying him of the amnesty declared by the signing of the Treaty of Paris
Treaty of Paris (1898)
The Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed on December 10, 1898, at the end of the Spanish-American War, and came into effect on April 11, 1899, when the ratifications were exchanged....
. The Americans sent Bliss to Asomante, but Nouvilas refused to suspend the hostilities after receiving a telegram from Macías denying any peace treaty. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended August 13, after President William McKinley
William McKinley
William McKinley, Jr. was the 25th President of the United States . He is best known for winning fiercely fought elections, while supporting the gold standard and high tariffs; he succeeded in forging a Republican coalition that for the most part dominated national politics until the 1930s...
and French Ambassador Jules Cambon
Jules Cambon
Jules-Martin Cambon was a French diplomat.He began his career as a lawyer , served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service in 1871...
, acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice
Armistice
An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico.
Treaty of Paris of 1898
The Puerto Rico Campaign, which began with the Yales’s capture of the Rita on May 8 and ended on August 13 after the Treaty of Paris was signed, was short compared to the other campaigns in the Spanish American War, because the war came to an end before the military objective of the campaign was completed. Among the factors which benefited the invaders in the short campaign was that the Puerto Ricans who resided in the southern and western towns and villages resented Spanish rule and tended to view the Americans as their liberators. Some Puerto Rican leaders such as José de DiegoJosé de Diego
José de Diego y Martínez , known as "The Father of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement", was a statesman, journalist, poet, lawyer, and advocate for Puerto Rico's independence from Spain and from the United States....
and Eugenio María de Hostos
Eugenio María de Hostos
Eugenio María de Hostos known as "El Ciudadano de América" , was a Puerto Rican educator, philosopher, intellectual, lawyer, sociologist and independence advocate....
expected the United States to grant the island its independence and in the case of Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón
Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón
Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón was a lawyer, a member of the Puerto Rican House of Representatives, and a lifelong political contrarian. He favored Puerto Rican autonomy when Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony. After the Spanish-American War, when the island was ceded to the United States, he advocated...
and the committee which he headed, greeted General Miles and the invaders in Ponce with banquets. Believing that Puerto Rico would gain its independence, a group of men staged an uprising in Ciales which became known as "El Levantamiento de Ciales" or the "Ciales Uprising of 1898" and proclaimed Puerto Rico to be a republic. The Spanish authorities who were unaware that the cease fire had been signed brutally suppressed the uprising Another reason which can explain why the campaign was short and not as violent as the others is that the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions where in Cuba defending that island against the American invaders.
As stated in the introduction, the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70% casualties which included their dead, wounded, MIA’s and prisoners. The Spanish, Puerto Ricans and Americans that participated in the campaign totaled 33,472. Of this total 18,000 were Spanish, 10,000 were Puerto Rican and 15,472 were American military personnel. The Spanish and Puerto Rican suffered 429 casualties which included 17 dead, 88 wouded and 324 captured. The American forces suffered 43 casualties: 3 dead and 40 wounded. The commander of Spain’s 6th Provisional Battalion, Julio Cervera Baviera gained notoriety as the author of a pamphlet
Pamphlet
A pamphlet is an unbound booklet . It may consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both sides and folded in half, in thirds, or in fourths , or it may consist of a few pages that are folded in half and saddle stapled at the crease to make a simple book...
called La defensa de Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.Puerto Rico comprises an...
, which supported Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado and in an attempt to justify Spain’s defeat against the United States, falsely blamed the Puerto Rican volunteers in the Spanish Army of the fiasco A group of angry Sanjuaneros
San Juan, Puerto Rico
San Juan , officially Municipio de la Ciudad Capital San Juan Bautista , is the capital and most populous municipality in Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 395,326 making it the 46th-largest city under the jurisdiction of...
agreed to challenge Cervera to a duel
Duel
A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two individuals, with matched weapons in accordance with agreed-upon rules.Duels in this form were chiefly practised in Early Modern Europe, with precedents in the medieval code of chivalry, and continued into the modern period especially among...
if the commander did not retract his pamphlet. The men drew lots for this honor; it fell to José Janer y Soler and was seconded by Cayetano Coll y Toste
Cayetano Coll y Toste
Dr. Cayetano Coll y Toste , was a Puerto Rican historian and writer. He was the patriach of a prominent family of Puerto Rican, educators, politicians and writers.-Early years:...
y Leonidas Villalón. Cervera’s seconds were Colonel Pedro del Pino and Captain Emilio Barrera. The duel never took place, as Cervera explained his intentions in writing the pamphlet, and all parties were satisfied.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898
Treaty of Paris (1898)
The Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed on December 10, 1898, at the end of the Spanish-American War, and came into effect on April 11, 1899, when the ratifications were exchanged....
, ratified on December 10, 1898, Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States. Spain had lost its last colony in the western hemisphere and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence. The United States established a military government and appointed Major General Nelson A. Miles the first head of the military government established on the island, acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs. Members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain. By October 18, the Spanish withdrawal from Puerto Rico was completed as the final troops left San Juan for Spain. Those who belonged to the Spanish military who decided to stay in Puerto Rico were offered the option by the United States to serve in the newly formed “Porto Rico Regiment
65th Infantry Regiment (United States)
The 65th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed "The Borinqueneers," was an all-volunteer Puerto Rican regiment of the United States Army. Its motto was Honor et Fidelitas, Latin for Honor and Fidelity. It participated in World War I, World War II, and the Korean War...
”. Some took the offer, such as Teófilo Marxuach
Teofilo Marxuach
Lieutenant Colonel Teófilo Marxuach, , was the person who ordered the first shot fired in World War I on behalf of the United States on an armed German supply ship trying to force its way out of the San Juan Bay...
, a former Lieutenant in the Spanish Army who joined the regiment, and others, such as Capt. Angel Rivero Méndez, declined the offer and retired from the military.
“Americanization” of Puerto Rico
From 1898 to 1900, Puerto Rico was governed by four military officers, Commanding General Nelson A. Miles (1898), Major General John R. Brooke (1898–1898), Major General Guy Vernon Henry (1898–1899) and Major General George Whitefield Davis (1899–1900). Some of these men, such as Miles, Brookes and Henry were experienced veterans of the Indian WarsIndian Wars
American Indian Wars is the name used in the United States to describe a series of conflicts between American settlers or the federal government and the native peoples of North America before and after the American Revolutionary War. The wars resulted from the arrival of European colonizers who...
and even though they were accustomed to the pacification and administration of the Native Americans
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
the U.S. Army had no previous experience in the administration of overseas territories. Major General Henry stated:
The administration of Puerto Rico was the responsibility of the United States Department of War
United States Department of War
The United States Department of War, also called the War Department , was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army...
’s Division of Insular Affairs which was molded after the Bureau of Indian Affairs
Bureau of Indian Affairs
The Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the US Department of the Interior. It is responsible for the administration and management of of land held in trust by the United States for Native Americans in the United States, Native American...
. Almost immediately, the United States began the “Americanization
Americanization
Americanization is the influence of the United States on the popular culture, technology, business practices, or political techniques of other countries. The term has been used since at least 1907. Inside the U.S...
” process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico’s economy and polity
Polity
Polity is a form of government Aristotle developed in his search for a government that could be most easily incorporated and used by the largest amount of people groups, or states...
and did not apply democratic principles to the colony. Puerto Rico was classified as an “unincorporated territory” which meant that the protections of the United States Constitution
United States Constitution
The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America. It is the framework for the organization of the United States government and for the relationship of the federal government with the states, citizens, and all people within the United States.The first three...
did not automatically apply because the island belonged to the U.S., but was not part of the U.S. In 1899, U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar
George Frisbie Hoar
George Frisbie Hoar was a prominent United States politician and United States Senator from Massachusetts. Hoar was born in Concord, Massachusetts...
described Puerto Ricans as "uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine, women, music and dancing" and recommended that Spanish should be abolished in the island’s schools and only English should be taught. Schools became the primary vehicle of Americanization, and initially all classes were taught in English, which also made for a large dropout rate.
On January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to Porto Rico (On May 17, 1932, U.S. Congress changed the name back to "Puerto Rico") and the island’s currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the American dollar, integrating the island’s currency into the U.S. monetary system. The United States exerted their control over the economy of the island by prohibiting Puerto Rico from negotiating commercial treaties with other nations, from determining tariffs, and from shipping goods to the mainland on other than U.S. carriers.
Civil disorder
A state of civil disorder existed in the island’s mountainous region after the invasion of the United States. The local Criollo, who now found themselves unemployed and felt that they had been exploited by their former employers, formed bands called “Partidas”. The Partidas, at first attacked and robbed many of the wealthy plantation owners, who were loyal to the Spanish Crown, in vengeance, however they later began to attack the businesses owned by the local natives. One of the most notable leaders of the Partidas was José Maldonado RománJosé Maldonado Román
José Maldonado Román a.k.a. "Aguila Blanca" was a Puerto Rican revolutionary who fought with the Cuban Liberation Army and whose controversial exploits in Puerto Rico have contributed to making him part of Puerto Rican lore....
a.k.a. “Aguila Blanca”. Maldonado, who operated in the areas of Juana Diaz and Ponce
Ponce, Puerto Rico
Ponce is both a city and a municipality in the southern part of Puerto Rico. The city is the seat of the municipal government.The city of Ponce, the fourth most populated in Puerto Rico, and the most populated outside of the San Juan metropolitan area, is named for Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, the...
, harassed the Spanish Civil Guard and later did the same to the American Forces. Another factor contributing to the state of civil disorder in the island was the lack of discipline of the American troops which were stationed in the island. These troops were not professional soldiers and were composed of volunteers. Many instances were reported where these men would act disorderly, under the influence of alcohol, and get into fights with the local residents. The state of civil disorder came to a halt in the island after the military government began to rebuilt Puerto Rico’s infrastructure, thereby providing employment for many of the discontent and unemployed population, and when the volunteer troops were replaced by the regular Army.
End of military rule and rise of the sugar economy
The United States had outlawed all Puerto Rican currency and declared the island’s peso, whose international value was equal to the U.S. dollar, to be worth only 60 American cents. Every Puerto Rican lost 40% of his or her money overnight. Military rule was replaced by a civilian government by way of the Foraker Act of 1900Foraker Act
The Foraker Act,officially the Organic Act of 1900, is a United States federal law that established civilian government on the island of Puerto Rico, which had been newly acquired by the United States as a result of the Spanish–American War. Section VII of the Foraker Act also established Puerto...
. However, the Act stipulated that the governor, chief of police and top officials were presidentially appointed and they were all to be Americans. The Foraker Act (with the influence of the American sugar companies) required the removal of a stipulation from a local law which placed a limit of 500 acre
Acre
The acre is a unit of area in a number of different systems, including the imperial and U.S. customary systems. The most commonly used acres today are the international acre and, in the United States, the survey acre. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land.The acre is related...
s (approx. 202.34 hectare
Hectare
The hectare is a metric unit of area defined as 10,000 square metres , and primarily used in the measurement of land. In 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as being 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1/100 km2...
) as the amount of land that any one person was allowed to own. Thus the Foraker Act, whose political framework was established by the military and the War Department, transformed Puerto Rico’s diversified agricultural economy (coffee, tobacco, sugar and fruit) into a sugar monoculture economy. Since many Puerto Ricans had 40% less wealth because of the currency change, the farmers had to borrow money from U.S. banks. But with no usury law restrictions, interest rates were so high that, within a decade, the farmers defaulted on their loans and the banks foreclosed on their land. American sugar companies had an advantage over the local sugar plantation owners. The local plantation owner could only finance his operations at local banks which offered high interest rates compared to the low rates that the American companies received from the commercial banks in Wall Street
Wall Street
Wall Street refers to the financial district of New York City, named after and centered on the eight-block-long street running from Broadway to South Street on the East River in Lower Manhattan. Over time, the term has become a metonym for the financial markets of the United States as a whole, or...
. This factor, plus the tariffs now imposed, forced many of the local sugar plantation owners to go bankrupt or to sell their holdings to the more powerful American sugar companies. Sugar was considered one of the few strategic commodities in which the United States was not fully self sufficient. An example of the American conflict of interest which intertwined politics, the military and sugar commercial interests is Charles Herbert Allen
Charles Herbert Allen
Charles Herbert Allen was an American politician and businessman. His positions included serving in the United States House of Representatives and as governor of Puerto Rico.-Early life:...
, the first American civilian appointed governor of the island. Allen was a former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and a strong promoter of sugar investments who believed that every acre of rich sugar land in Puerto Rico should be developed. He later became the president of the American Sugar Refining Company
American Sugar Refining Company
The American Sugar Refining Company was the largest American business unit in the sugar refining industry in the early 1900s.-Establishment:...
, which had large holdings in Puerto Rico. By 1930, most of Puerto Rico’s farmlands belonged to 41 sugar syndicates. 80 percent of these were U.S. owned, and the largest four syndicates – Central Guanica, South Puerto Rico, Fajardo Sugar and East Puerto Rico Sugar – were entirely U.S. owned and covered over half the island’s arable land.
54 years after the end of the Puerto Rican Campaign
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governorGovernor of Puerto Rico
The Governor of Puerto Rico is the Head of Government of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Since 1948, the Governor has been elected by the people of Puerto Rico...
, which it first exercised in 1948. The Constitution of Puerto Rico
Constitution of Puerto Rico
The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is the controlling government document of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. It is composed of nine articles detailing the structure of the government as well as the function of several of its institutions. The document also contains an extensive...
was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, and approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year. Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado (literally translated as "Free Associated State"), officially translated into English as Commonwealth
Commonwealth (United States insular area)
In the terminology of the United States insular areas, a Commonwealth is a type of organized but unincorporated dependent territory.The definition of "Commonwealth" according to current U.S. State Department policy reads: "The term 'Commonwealth' does not describe or provide for any specific...
, for its body politic
Body politic
A polity is a state or one of its subordinate civil authorities, such as a province, prefecture, county, municipality, city, or district. It is generally understood to mean a geographic area with a corresponding government. Thomas Hobbes considered bodies politic in this sense in Leviathan...
.
Markers, monuments and tombstones
In Puerto Rico there are no monuments to commemorate the Spanish-American War per se. There are various markers where some of the historical events took place and some tombstones which honor both the American invaders and the Spanish and Puerto Rican defenders of the island. In the town of Guanica there is a rock on the coastal port with an inscription indicating that Major General Nelson A. Miles and his men landed on that spot. There is also a monument in the town dedicated to the veterans of the Spanish-American War, however said monument fails to specify to which veterans it is dedicated to, the Americans or the Spanish/Puerto Ricans. In Yauco there is a Monument/tombstone dedicated to an unknown Spanish soldier who had fallen in combat and was left there on that very spot. In Coamo there are two markers that indicate where Rafael Martínez Illescas and Frutos López died. López's tomb is located in the old cemetery of Coamo next to that of the tomb of the three unknown Puerto Rican soldiers who perished in that conflict. Martínez Illescas' body was transferred 1916, to his hometown Cartagena in Spain where he is buried. The town of Guayama has a monument dedicated to the members of the 4th Ohio Infantry. In Asomante, there is a marker which indicates the place where the "Battle of Asomante" took place.Further reading
- Angel Rivero MendezÁngel Rivero MéndezÁngel Rivero Méndez was a Puerto Rican soldier, writer, journalist and a businessman who is credited with inventing the "Kola Champagne" soft drink...
: Crónica de la Guerra Hispanoamericana en Puerto Rico. Published by: Imprenta de los sucesores de Rivade- neyra (1922) - Hector Andres NegroniHector Andres NegroniColonel Héctor Andrés Negroni is a historian, senior aerospace defense executive, author and the first Puerto Rican graduate of the United States Air Force Academy...
: Historia militar de Puerto Rico. Published by: Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario (1992)
See also
- Military history of Puerto RicoMilitary history of Puerto RicoThe recorded military history of Puerto Rico encompasses the period from the 16th century, when Spanish conquistadores battled native Tainos in the rebellion of 1511, to the present employment of Puerto Ricans in the United States Armed Forces in the military campaigns in Afghanistan and...
- Camp Las CasasCamp Las CasasCamp Las Casas was a United States military instalation established in Santurce, Puerto Rico in 1904. The camp was the main training base of the "Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry," On January 15, 1899, the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to Porto Rico a segregated U.S...
- Spanish-American relationsSpanish-American relationsSpain – United States relations refers to interstate relations between the Kingdom of Spain and the United States. Its groundwork was laid by the colonization of parts of the Americas by Spain. The first settlement in Florida was Spanish, followed by others in New Mexico, California, Arizona,...
- Politics of Puerto RicoPolitics of Puerto RicoThe politics of Puerto Rico take place in the framework of a republican democratic form of government that is under the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States of America as an organized unincorporated territory....
- El Grito de Lares
- Intentona de YaucoIntentona de YaucoThe Intentona de Yauco a.k.a. the "Attempted Coup of Yauco" of 1897, was the second and last major revolt against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico, staged by Puerto Rico's pro-independence movement....
- Puerto Ricans in World War IPuerto Ricans in World War IPuerto Ricans and people of Puerto Rican descent have participated as members of the United States Armed Forces in every conflict in which the United States has been involved since World War I. One of the consequences of the Spanish-American War was that Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States...
- Puerto Ricans in World War IIPuerto Ricans in World War IIPuerto Ricans and people of Puerto Rican descent have participated as members of the United States Armed Forces in every conflict in which the United States has been involved since World War I. In World War II, Puerto Rican members of the U.S. armed forces guarded U.S...
- Puerto Ricans in the Vietnam WarPuerto Ricans in the Vietnam WarThousands of Puerto Ricans served in the Armed Forces of the United States during the Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War. Said war was a Cold War military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1959 to April 30, 1975. Puerto Ricans served in different positions...
- 65th Infantry Regiment