Psychopathology
Encyclopedia
Psychopathology is the study of mental illness
, mental distress, and abnormal/maladaptive behavior. The term is most commonly used within psychiatry
where pathology
refers to disease processes. Abnormal psychology
is a similar term used more frequently in the non-medical field of psychology
.
Psychopathology should not be confused with psychopathy
, a genetic subtype of antisocial personality disorder
.
s and clinical psychologists
are particularly interested in this area and may either be involved in clinical treatment of mental illness, or research into the origin, development and manifestations of such states, or often, both. More widely, many different specialties may be involved in the study of psychopathology. For example, a neuroscientist
may focus on brain
changes related to mental illness. Therefore, someone who is referred to as a psychopathologist, may be one of any number of professions who have specialized in studying this area.
Psychiatrists in particular are interested in descriptive psychopathology, which has the aim of describing the symptoms and syndromes of mental illness. This is both for the diagnosis
of individual patients (to see whether the patient's experience fits any pre-existing classification), or for the creation of diagnostic systems (such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
or International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems) which define exactly which signs and symptoms should make up a diagnosis, and how experiences and behaviours should be grouped in particular diagnoses (e.g. clinical depression
, paraphrenia
, paranoia
, schizophrenia
).
Before diagnosing a psychological disorder, Clinicians must study the themes, also known as abnormalities, within psychological disorders. The most prominent themes consist of: deviance, distress, dysfunction and danger. These themes are known as the 4 D's, which define abnormality.
Description of the 4 D's when defining abnormality: Deviance: this term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviours and emotions are considered deviate when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviate just because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an individual's actions as deviate or abnormal when his or her behaviour is deemed unacceptable by the culture he or she belongs to. Distress: this term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. He or she may feel deeply troubled and affected by their illness. Dysfunction: this term involves maladaptive behaviour that impairs the individuals ability to perform normal daily functions such as getting ready for work in the morning, or driving a car. Such maladaptive behaviours prevent the individual from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However, we must remember that a person's behaviour, who is acting dysfunctional, is not always caused by a disorder. Dysfunctional behaviour may be voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike. Danger: this term involves dangerous or violent behaviour directed at the individual, or others in the environment. An example of dangerous behaviour that may suggest a psychological disorder is engaging in suicidal activity.
may be considered as a psychopathological sign, even if there are not enough symptoms present to fulfill the criteria for one of the disorders listed in the DSM
or ICD.
In a more general sense, any behaviour or experience which causes impairment, distress or disability
, particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either the cognitive and neurocognitive
systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology.
For a diagnosis to be made, 2 levels of criteria within the DSM must be met. First, the disordered behaviour must originate within the person, and it must not be a reaction due to external factors. Second, the disorder must be involuntary, meaning that the individual cannot physically or mentally control their symptoms.
The DSM uses a Multiaxial system of classification, which requires the individual to be placed on 5 separate axes which describe possible mental health factors. Most disorders are recorded on axis I, which are state dependent. Axis II describes disorders that are trait dependent. Axis III describes current physical conditions, Axis IV describes psychosocial or environmental stressors, and lastly, Axis V is used to discuss the individuals global assessment of functioning.
Examples of Disorders classified within the DSM include:
Mental illness
A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and which is not a part of normal development or culture. Such a disorder may consist of a combination of affective, behavioural,...
, mental distress, and abnormal/maladaptive behavior. The term is most commonly used within psychiatry
Psychiatry
Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the study and treatment of mental disorders. These mental disorders include various affective, behavioural, cognitive and perceptual abnormalities...
where pathology
Pathology
Pathology is the precise study and diagnosis of disease. The word pathology is from Ancient Greek , pathos, "feeling, suffering"; and , -logia, "the study of". Pathologization, to pathologize, refers to the process of defining a condition or behavior as pathological, e.g. pathological gambling....
refers to disease processes. Abnormal psychology
Abnormal psychology
Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder...
is a similar term used more frequently in the non-medical field of psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
.
Psychopathology should not be confused with psychopathy
Psychopathy
Psychopathy is a mental disorder characterized primarily by a lack of empathy and remorse, shallow emotions, egocentricity, and deceptiveness. Psychopaths are highly prone to antisocial behavior and abusive treatment of others, and are very disproportionately responsible for violent crime...
, a genetic subtype of antisocial personality disorder
Antisocial personality disorder
Antisocial personality disorder is described by the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, fourth edition , as an Axis II personality disorder characterized by "...a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood...
.
Psychopathology as the study of psychiatric illness
Many different professions may be involved in studying mental illness or distress. Most notably, psychiatristPsychiatrist
A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. All psychiatrists are trained in diagnostic evaluation and in psychotherapy...
s and clinical psychologists
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development...
are particularly interested in this area and may either be involved in clinical treatment of mental illness, or research into the origin, development and manifestations of such states, or often, both. More widely, many different specialties may be involved in the study of psychopathology. For example, a neuroscientist
Neuroscience
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology. However, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that collaborates with other fields such as chemistry, computer science, engineering, linguistics, mathematics,...
may focus on brain
Human brain
The human brain has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over three times larger than the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent body size. Estimates for the number of neurons in the human brain range from 80 to 120 billion...
changes related to mental illness. Therefore, someone who is referred to as a psychopathologist, may be one of any number of professions who have specialized in studying this area.
Psychiatrists in particular are interested in descriptive psychopathology, which has the aim of describing the symptoms and syndromes of mental illness. This is both for the diagnosis
Medical diagnosis
Medical diagnosis refers both to the process of attempting to determine or identify a possible disease or disorder , and to the opinion reached by this process...
of individual patients (to see whether the patient's experience fits any pre-existing classification), or for the creation of diagnostic systems (such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is published by the American Psychiatric Association and provides a common language and standard criteria for the classification of mental disorders...
or International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems) which define exactly which signs and symptoms should make up a diagnosis, and how experiences and behaviours should be grouped in particular diagnoses (e.g. clinical depression
Clinical depression
Major depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and by loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
, paraphrenia
Paraphrenia
Paraphrenia is described as a group of psychotic illnesses distinct from paranoia and from schizophrenia.. Paraphrenia as a separate disorder is not included in either ICD 10 or DSM IV and is likely to be classified as atypical psychosis, schizoaffective disorder or delusional disorder using these...
, paranoia
Paranoia
Paranoia [] is a thought process believed to be heavily influenced by anxiety or fear, often to the point of irrationality and delusion. Paranoid thinking typically includes persecutory beliefs, or beliefs of conspiracy concerning a perceived threat towards oneself...
, schizophrenia
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a disintegration of thought processes and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests itself as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social...
).
Before diagnosing a psychological disorder, Clinicians must study the themes, also known as abnormalities, within psychological disorders. The most prominent themes consist of: deviance, distress, dysfunction and danger. These themes are known as the 4 D's, which define abnormality.
Description of the 4 D's when defining abnormality: Deviance: this term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviours and emotions are considered deviate when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviate just because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an individual's actions as deviate or abnormal when his or her behaviour is deemed unacceptable by the culture he or she belongs to. Distress: this term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. He or she may feel deeply troubled and affected by their illness. Dysfunction: this term involves maladaptive behaviour that impairs the individuals ability to perform normal daily functions such as getting ready for work in the morning, or driving a car. Such maladaptive behaviours prevent the individual from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However, we must remember that a person's behaviour, who is acting dysfunctional, is not always caused by a disorder. Dysfunctional behaviour may be voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike. Danger: this term involves dangerous or violent behaviour directed at the individual, or others in the environment. An example of dangerous behaviour that may suggest a psychological disorder is engaging in suicidal activity.
Psychopathology as a descriptive term
The term psychopathology may also be used to denote behaviors or experiences which are indicative of mental illness, even if they do not constitute a formal diagnosis. For example, the presence of a hallucinationHallucination
A hallucination, in the broadest sense of the word, is a perception in the absence of a stimulus. In a stricter sense, hallucinations are defined as perceptions in a conscious and awake state in the absence of external stimuli which have qualities of real perception, in that they are vivid,...
may be considered as a psychopathological sign, even if there are not enough symptoms present to fulfill the criteria for one of the disorders listed in the DSM
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is published by the American Psychiatric Association and provides a common language and standard criteria for the classification of mental disorders...
or ICD.
In a more general sense, any behaviour or experience which causes impairment, distress or disability
Disability
A disability may be physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional, developmental or some combination of these.Many people would rather be referred to as a person with a disability instead of handicapped...
, particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either the cognitive and neurocognitive
Neurocognitive
Neurocognitive is a term used to describe cognitive functions closely linked to the function of particular areas, neural pathways, or cortical networks in the brain substrate layers of neurological matrix at the cellular molecular level...
systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
The DSM, or Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders, is an official guideline for the diagnosis of psychological disorders. Clinicians, researchers and psychologists use this manual as a reference guide to diagnose psychological disorders.For a diagnosis to be made, 2 levels of criteria within the DSM must be met. First, the disordered behaviour must originate within the person, and it must not be a reaction due to external factors. Second, the disorder must be involuntary, meaning that the individual cannot physically or mentally control their symptoms.
The DSM uses a Multiaxial system of classification, which requires the individual to be placed on 5 separate axes which describe possible mental health factors. Most disorders are recorded on axis I, which are state dependent. Axis II describes disorders that are trait dependent. Axis III describes current physical conditions, Axis IV describes psychosocial or environmental stressors, and lastly, Axis V is used to discuss the individuals global assessment of functioning.
- Axis I: Most psychological disorders
- Axis II: Personality disorders and mental retardation
- Axis III: General medical condition
- Axis IV: Psychosocial and environmental stressors
- Axis V: Global assessment of functioningGlobal Assessment of FunctioningThe Global Assessment of Functioning is a numeric scale used by mental health clinicians and physicians to subjectively rate the social, occupational, and psychological functioning of adults, e.g., how well or adaptively one is meeting various problems-in-living. The scale is presented and...
Examples of Disorders classified within the DSM include:
- Major Depressive Disorder is a mood disorder defined by symptoms of loss of motivation, decreased mood, lack of energy and thoughts of suicide.
- Bipolar Disorders are mood disorders characterized by depressive and manic episodes of varying lengths and degrees.
- Dysthymia is a mood disorder similar to depression. Characterized by a persistent low mood, Dysthymia is a less debilitating form of depression with no break in ordinary functioning.
Further reading
- Sims, A. (2002) Symptoms in the Mind: An Introduction to Descriptive Psychopathology (3rd ed). Elsevier. ISBN 0-7020-2627-1
- Berrios, G.E.(1996) The History of Mental Symptoms: Descriptive Psychopathology since the 19th century. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43736-9
- Elisabeth RoudinescoElisabeth RoudinescoÉlisabeth Roudinesco is a French academic historian and psychoanalyst. She is an independent guest researcher at University of Paris VII – Denis Diderot...
, Why Psychoanalysis?, New York, Columbia University Press, 2003 - Elisabeth RoudinescoElisabeth RoudinescoÉlisabeth Roudinesco is a French academic historian and psychoanalyst. She is an independent guest researcher at University of Paris VII – Denis Diderot...
and Michel Plon, Dictionnaire de la Psychanalyse, Fayard, Paris, 2000
See also
- DelusionDelusionA delusion is a false belief held with absolute conviction despite superior evidence. Unlike hallucinations, delusions are always pathological...
- Abnormal psychologyAbnormal psychologyAbnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder...
- Animal psychopathologyAnimal psychopathologyAnimal psychopathology is the study of mental or behavioral disorders in non-human animals.Historically, there has been an anthropocentric tendency to emphasize the study of animal psychopathologies as models for human mental illnesses...
- Biological psychopathologyBiological psychopathologyBiological psychopathology is the study of the biological basis of mental illness. It attempts to elucidate the genetic and neurological etiology behind psychological disorders, including schizophrenia, mood disorders, and anxiety disorders....
- Child psychopathologyChild psychopathologyChild psychopathology is the manifestation of psychological disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder are examples of child psychopathology...
- Mental illnessMental illnessA mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and which is not a part of normal development or culture. Such a disorder may consist of a combination of affective, behavioural,...
- PsychiatryPsychiatryPsychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the study and treatment of mental disorders. These mental disorders include various affective, behavioural, cognitive and perceptual abnormalities...
- Glossary of psychiatryGlossary of psychiatryIn this glossary of psychiatric terms, mostly Greek, secondly French and German and some English terms, as used in psychiatric literature, were defined...
- Biological psychiatryBiological psychiatryBiological psychiatry, or biopsychiatry is an approach to psychiatry that aims to understand mental disorder in terms of the biological function of the nervous system. It is interdisciplinary in its approach and draws on sciences such as neuroscience, psychopharmacology, biochemistry, genetics and...
- Chemical imbalance theory