A
psychoactive drug,
psychopharmaceutical or
psychotropic substance is a
chemical substanceA chemical substance is a material with a specific chemical composition.A common example of a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Some typical chemical substances are...
that acts primarily upon the
central nervous systemThe central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that functions to coordinate the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all animals more advanced than sponges or jellyfish. In vertebrates, the central nervous system is enclosed in the meninges. It contains...
where it alters
brainThe brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfish have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all...
function, resulting in changes in
perceptionIn philosophy, psychology, and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. It is a task far more complex than was imagined in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was predicted that building perceiving machines would take about a decade,...
,
moodA mood is a relatively long lasting emotional state. Moods differ from simple emotions in that they are less specific, less intense, and less likely to be triggered by a particular stimulus or event....
,
consciousnessConsciousness is subjective experience or awareness or wakefulness or the executive control system of the mind. It is an umbrella term that may refer to a variety of mental phenomena...
and
behaviorBehavior or behaviour refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. Behavior can be conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary....
. These drugs may be used
recreationallyRecreational drug use is the use of psychoactive drugs for recreational purposes rather than for work, approved medical or spiritual purposes, although the distinction is not always clear ....
to purposefully alter one's
consciousnessConsciousness is subjective experience or awareness or wakefulness or the executive control system of the mind. It is an umbrella term that may refer to a variety of mental phenomena...
, as entheogens for ritual or spiritual purposes, as a tool for studying or augmenting the mind, or therapeutically as
medicationA pharmaceutical drug, also referred to as medicine, medication or medicament, can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease.- Classification :...
.
Because psychoactive substances bring about subjective changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find pleasant (e.g. euphoria) or advantageous (e.g. increased alertness), many psychoactive substances are
abusedAlthough the term substance can refer to any physical matter, substance abuse has come to refer to the overindulgence in and dependence of a drug or other chemical leading to effects that are detrimental to the individual's physical and mental health, or the welfare of others.]The disorder is...
, that is, used excessively, despite risks or negative consequences. With sustained use of some substances,
physical dependencePhysical dependence refers to a state resulting from chronic use of a drug that has produced tolerance and where negative physical symptoms of withdrawal result from abrupt discontinuation or dosage reduction. Physical dependence can develop from low-dose therapeutic use of certain medications as...
may develop, making the cycle of abuse even more difficult to interrupt.
Drug rehabilitationDrug rehabilitation is an umbrella term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and so-called street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or amphetamines...
can involve a combination of
psychotherapyPsychotherapy or personal counseling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living.It aims to increase the individual's sense of their own well-being...
, support groups and even other psychoactive substances to break the cycle of dependency.
In part because of this potential for abuse and dependency, the ethics of drug use are the subject of a continuing philosophical debate. Many governments worldwide have placed restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to decrease drug abuse.
Ethical concernsNeuroethics is the ethics of neuroscience, or the neuroscience of ethics.The ethics of neuroscience deals with matters as a subclass of bioethics...
have also been raised about over-use of these drugs clinically, and about their marketing by manufacturers.
History
Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric times. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years. While medicinal use seems to have played a very large role, it has been suggested that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire. Others suggest that marketing, availability or the pressures of modern life are some of the reasons humans use many psychoactives in their daily lives . However, the long history of drug use and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicates that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.
This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming
catnipNepeta is a genus of about 250 species of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae. The members of this group are known as catnip or catmint because of their famous effect on cats—nepeta pleasantly stimulates cats' pheromonic receptors, typically resulting in temporary euphoria...
. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use. Biology suggests an evolutionary connection between psychoactive plants and animals, as to why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.
During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning them and making their use, supply or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this is the
ProhibitionProhibition of alcohol, often referred to simply as prohibition, is a sumptuary law which prohibits alcohol. Typically, the manufacture, transportation, import, export, and sale of alcoholic beverages is restricted or illegal. The term can also apply to the periods in the histories of the countries...
era in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized.
Uses
Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes. These uses vary widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal uses while others may have shamanic purposes, and still others are used medicinally. Other examples would be social drinking or sleep aids.
CaffeineCaffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that is a psychoactive stimulant drug. Caffeine was discovered by a German chemist, Friedrich Ferdinand Runge, in 1819. He coined the term kaffein, a chemical compound in coffee, which in English became caffeine...
is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but unlike many others, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.
Anesthesia
General anestheticsA general anaesthetic drug is an anaesthetic drug that brings about a reversible loss of consciousness...
are a class of psychoactive drug used on patients to block pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, which allows patients to undergo medical procedures like
surgerySurgery is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance, or sometimes for some other reason...
without physical pain or emotional trauma. To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the
GABAGabâ or gabaa, for the Cebuano people , is the concept of a non-human and non-divine, imminent retribution. A sort of negative karma, it is generally seen as an evil effect on a person because of their wrongdoings or transgressions...
and
NMDANMDA is an amino acid derivative acting as a specific agonist at the NMDA receptor, and therefore mimics the action of the neurotransmitter glutamate on that receptor...
systems. For example,
halothaneHalothane vapour is an inhalational general anaesthetic. Its IUPAC name is 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane. It is the only inhalational anaesthetic agent containing a bromine atom; there are several other halogenated anesthesia agents which lack the bromine atom and do contain the fluorine...
is a GABA agonist, and
ketamineKetamine is a drug used in human and veterinary medicine developed by Parke-Davis in 1962. Its hydrochloride salt is sold as Ketanest, Ketaset, and Ketalar. Pharmacologically, ketamine is classified as an NMDA receptor antagonist...
is an NMDA receptor antagonist.
Pain control
Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to
manage painPain management is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain.-Types of pain:Acute pain, such pain resulting from trauma, often has a reversible cause and may require only transient measures and correction of the underlying problem...
. As the subjective experience of pain is regulated by
endogenousThe word endogenous means "proceeding from within", the opposite of exogenous.-Biology:Endogenous substances are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell . Endogenous retrovirus are caused by ancient infections of germ cells in humans, mammals and other vertebrates...
opioid peptidesAn opioid is a chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract...
, pain can be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system as
opioid receptor agonistsOpioid Agonist Treatment, or OAT, refers to the treatment of a narcotics addiction in humans via the administration of similar opioid drugs, agonists, and the resultant cross tolerance and physical dependence. Methadone and Buprenorphine are the most common drugs used in agonist treatment...
. This class of drugs includes
opiateIn medicine, the term opiate describes any of the narcotic opioid alkaloids found as natural products in the opium poppy plant, as well as many semisynthetic chemical derivatives of such alkaloids.-Overview:...
narcotics, like
morphineMorphine is a highly potent opiate analgesic psychoactive drug, is the principal active ingredient in Papaver somniferum , is considered to be the prototypical opioid. Like other opioids, e.g...
and
codeineCodeine or methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic, antitussive, and antidiarrheal properties.-History:Codeine is an alkaloid found in opium and other poppy saps like Papaver bracteatum, the Iranian poppy, in concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 3.0 percent...
. NSAIDs, such as
aspirinAspirin , also known as acetylsalicylic acid , is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication....
and
ibuprofenIbuprofen is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug originally marketed as Brufen, and since then under various other trademarks , most notably Nurofen, Advil and Motrin...
, are a second class of analgesics. They reduce
eicosanoidIn biochemistry, eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by oxygenation of twenty-carbon essential fatty acids, .They exert complex control over many bodily systems, mainly in inflammation or immunity, and as messengers in the central nervous system....
-mediated
inflammationInflammation is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli as well as initiate the healing process for the tissue. Inflammation is not a...
by inhibiting the enzyme
cyclooxygenaseCyclooxygenase is an enzyme that is responsible for formation of important biological mediators called prostanoids, including prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxane. Pharmacological inhibition of COX can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain...
.
Psychiatric medication
Psychiatric medications are prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders. There are 6 major classes of psychiatric medications:
- Antidepressants, which are used to treat disparate disorders such as clinical depression
Major depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
, dysthymiaDysthymic Disorder is a chronic mood disorder that falls within the depression spectrum. It is considered a chronic depression, but with less severity than major depressive disorder. This disorder tends to be a chronic, long-lasting illness....
, anxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, fear, or worry....
, eating disorders and borderline personality disorderBorderline personality disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders that describes a prolonged disturbance of personality function characterized by depth and variability of moods...
.
- Stimulants, which are used to treat disorders such as attention deficit disorder and narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is chronic sleep disorder, or dyssomnia. The condition is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness in which a person experiences extreme fatigue and possibly falls asleep at inappropriate times, such as while at work or at school...
and to suppress the appetite.
- Antipsychotics, which are used to treat psychoses, schizophrenia
Schizophrenia , from the Greek roots skhizein and phrēn, phren- is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental disorder characterized by abnormalities in the perception or expression of reality...
and maniaMania is a severe medical condition characterized by extremely elevated mood, energy, unusual thought patterns and sometimes psychosis...
.
- Mood stabilizers, which are used to treat bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder, also known as manic depressive disorder, manic depression or bipolar affective disorder, is a serious mental disorder that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood clinically referred to as mania or, if...
and schizoaffective disorderSchizoaffective disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental disorder characterized by recurring episodes of mood disorder and psychosis. Distortions in perception alternate with and occur simultaneously with elevated or depressed mood...
.
- Anxiolytics, which are used to treat anxiety disorder
Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal and pathological fears and anxieties which only came under the aegis of psychiatry at the very end of the 19th century. Current psychiatric diagnostic criteria recognize a wide variety of anxiety disorders...
s.
- Depressants, which are used as hypnotics, sedative
A sedative is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement.At higher doses it may result in slurred speech, staggering gait, poor judgment, and slow, uncertain reflexes...
s, and anesthetics.
Recreational use
Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples include
caffeineCaffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that is a psychoactive stimulant drug. Caffeine was discovered by a German chemist, Friedrich Ferdinand Runge, in 1819. He coined the term kaffein, a chemical compound in coffee, which in English became caffeine...
,
alcoholAn alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains ethanol . Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes: beers, wines, and spirits....
,
cocaineCocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and an appetite suppressant...
,
LSDLysergic acid diethylamide, LSD-25, LSD, formerly lysergide, commonly known as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family...
, and
cannabisCannabisalso known as marijuana or marihuana, and ganja , among many other namesrefers to any number of preparations of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug...
. Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:
- Stimulants, which elevate the central nervous system
The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that functions to coordinate the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all animals more advanced than sponges or jellyfish. In vertebrates, the central nervous system is enclosed in the meninges. It contains...
. These are used recreationally for their euphoricEuphoria is medically recognized as a mental/emotional state defined as a sense of great elation and wellbeing. Technically, euphoria is an affect, but the term is often colloquially used to define emotion as an intense state of transcendent happiness combined with an overwhelming sense of wellbeing...
effects.
- Hallucinogens (psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants), which induce perceptual and cognitive distortions.
- Hypnotics, which are used recreationally because of their euphoric
Euphoria is medically recognized as a mental/emotional state defined as a sense of great elation and wellbeing. Technically, euphoria is an affect, but the term is often colloquially used to define emotion as an intense state of transcendent happiness combined with an overwhelming sense of wellbeing...
effects.
- Analgesics, which are used recreationally because of their euphoric
Euphoria is medically recognized as a mental/emotional state defined as a sense of great elation and wellbeing. Technically, euphoria is an affect, but the term is often colloquially used to define emotion as an intense state of transcendent happiness combined with an overwhelming sense of wellbeing...
effects.
- Inhalant
Inhalants are a broad range of drugs in the forms of gases, aerosols, or solvents that are breathed in and absorbed through the lungs. While some inhalant drugs are used for medical purposes, as in the case of nitrous oxide , this article focuses on the non-medical use of inhalants, as recreational...
s, in the forms of gas aerosols, or solvents, which are inhaled as a vapor because of their stupefying effects. Many inhalants also fall into the above categories (such as nitrous oxideNitrous oxide, commonly known as happy gas or laughing gas, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula N
2O. At room temperature, it is a colorless non-flammable gas, with a pleasant, slightly sweet odor and taste. It is used in surgery and dentistry for its anesthetic and analgesic...
which is also an analgesic).
In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as a
statusIn sociology or anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in society .A society's stratification system, which is the system of distributing rewards to the members of society, determines social status. Social status, the position or rank of a person or group...
symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols at events such as at nightclubs and parties. For example, in
ancient EgyptAncient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and...
, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.
Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an
ongoing debate about drug prohibitionThe prohibition of drugs is a subject of considerable controversy. The following is a presentation of arguments for and against drug prohibition focusing primarily on a USA oriented setup.- Health :...
. Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal
autonomyAutonomy is a concept found in moral, political, and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it refers to the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...
and
freedomLiberty is a concept of political philosophy and identifies the condition in which an individual has the right to act according to his or her own will....
. In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional.
Ritual and spiritual use
Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used
mescalineMescaline or 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally occurring psychedelic alkaloid of the phenethylamine class. It is mainly used as an entheogen, and a tool to supplement various practices for transcendence, including in meditation, psychonautics, art projects, and psychedelic...
-containing
peyoteLophophora williamsii , better known by its common name Peyote, , is a small, spineless cactus. It is native to southwestern Texas and through central Mexico...
cacti for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years. The
muscimolMuscimol is the major psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus. Unlike psilocybin, a tryptamine, muscimol is a potent, selective agonist of the GABA
A receptor.-Chemistry:...
-containing
Amanita muscariaAmanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita, is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita...
mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe. Various other hallucinogens, including
jimsonweedDatura stramonium, known by the common names jimson weed, angel's trumpet, devil's weed, thorn apple, tolguacha, Jamestown weed, stinkweed, datura, moonflower, and, in South Africa, malpitte and mad seeds is, along with Datura metel , a common weed in the Solanaceae...
, psilocybin mushrooms, and
cannabisCannabisalso known as marijuana or marihuana, and ganja , among many other namesrefers to any number of preparations of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug...
have been used in religious ceremonies for millenia.
The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the
counterculture movementsThe counterculture of the 1960s refers to a cultural protest movement that developed in the United States between 1960 and 1973 as a reaction against the political conservatism and perceived social repression that prevailed during the 1950s. The movement gained momentum during the US government's...
of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of
Timothy LearyDr. Timothy Francis Leary was an American writer, psychologist, futurist, advocate of psychedelic drug research, and one of the first people whose remains have been sent into space. An icon of 1960s counterculture, Leary is most famous as a proponent of the therapeutic, spiritual and emotional...
, new religious movements began to use
LSDLysergic acid diethylamide, LSD-25, LSD, formerly lysergide, commonly known as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family...
and other hallucinogens as
sacramentA sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion is what Roman Catholics believe to be "a rite in which God is uniquely active." Augustine of Hippo defined a Christian sacrament as "a visible sign of an invisible reality." The Anglican Book of Common Prayer speaks of them as "an...
s. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of the
Native American ChurchNative American Church, a religious denomination which practices Peyotism or the Peyote religion, originated in the U.S. state of Oklahoma, and is the most widespread indigenous religion among Native Americans...
, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute
peyoteLophophora williamsii , better known by its common name Peyote, , is a small, spineless cactus. It is native to southwestern Texas and through central Mexico...
. However, the genuine religious use of Peyote, regardless of one's personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.
Administration
For a substance to be psychoactive, it must cross the
blood-brain barrierThe blood-brain barrier is a separation of circulating blood and cerebrospinal fluid maintained by the choroid plexus in the central nervous system . Endothelial cells restrict the diffusion of microscopic objects The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a separation of circulating blood and...
so it can affect neurochemical function. Psychoactive drugs are
administeredA route of administration in pharmacology and toxicology is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is brought into contact with the body....
in several different ways. In medicine, most psychiatric drugs, such as
fluoxetineFluoxetine is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class. Fluoxetine is approved for the treatment of major depression , obsessive-compulsive disorder , bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa, panic disorder and premenstrual dysphoric disorder...
,
quetiapineQuetiapine fumarate , marketed by AstraZeneca as Seroquel or SeroquelXR and by Orion Pharma as Ketipinor, is an atypical antipsychotic used in the management of schizophrenia, bipolar I mania, bipolar II depression, bipolar I depression, and used off-label for a variety of other purposes,...
, and
lorazepamLorazepam, initially marketed under the brand names Ativan and Temesta, is a benzodiazepine drug with short to medium duration of action. It has all five intrinsic benzodiazepine effects: anxiolytic, amnesic, sedative/hypnotic, anticonvulsant and muscle relaxant...
are ingested orally in
tabletA tablet is a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed or compacted into a solid. The excipients include binders, glidants and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to ensure that the tablet breaks up in the digestive tract; sweeteners or...
or capsule form. However, certain medical psychoactives are administered via
inhalationInhalation is the movement of air from the external environment, through the air ways, and into the alveoli.Inhalation begins with the onset of contraction of the diaphragm, which results in expansion of the intrapleural space and an increase in negative pressure according to Boyle's Law...
,
injectionAn injection is an infusion method of putting fluid into the body, usually with a hollow needle and a syringe which is pierced through the skin to a sufficient depth for the material to be forced into the body...
, or rectal
suppositoryA suppository is a drug delivery system that is inserted into the rectum , vagina , or urethra , where it dissolves....
/
enemaAn enema is the procedure of introducing liquids into the rectum and colon via the anus. The increasing volume of the liquid causes rapid expansion of the lower intestinal tract resulting in very uncomfortable bloating, cramping, powerful peristalsis, a feeling of extreme urgency and complete...
. Recreational drugs can be administered in several additional ways that are not common in medicine. Certain drugs, such as alcohol and
caffeineCaffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that is a psychoactive stimulant drug. Caffeine was discovered by a German chemist, Friedrich Ferdinand Runge, in 1819. He coined the term kaffein, a chemical compound in coffee, which in English became caffeine...
, are ingested in beverage form;
nicotineNicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants which constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots, and accumulating in the leaves...
and
cannabisCannabis is a genus of flowering plants that includes three putative species, Cannabis sativa L., Cannabis indica Lam., and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. These three taxa are indigenous to Central Asia, and South Asia. Cannabis has long been used for fibre , for medicinal purposes, and as a...
are often
smokedSmoking is a practice where a substance, most commonly tobacco, is burned and the smoke tasted or inhaled. This is primarily practised as a route of administration for recreational drug use, as combustion releases the active substances in drugs such as nicotine and makes them available for...
;
peyoteLophophora williamsii , better known by its common name Peyote, , is a small, spineless cactus. It is native to southwestern Texas and through central Mexico...
and psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and certain crystalline drugs such as
cocaineCocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and an appetite suppressant...
and methamphetamines are often
insufflatedInsufflation is the practice of inhaling substances into a body cavity. Insufflation has limited medical use, but is a common route of administration with many respiratory drugs used to treat conditions in the lungs and paranasal sinus .The technique is common for many recreational drugs and is...
. The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.
Effects
Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person's neurochemistry, which in turn causes changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more
neurotransmitterNeurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals which relay, amplify, and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles that cluster beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they...
or neuroreceptor in the brain.
Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. They act by increasing the
synthesisIn chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions...
of one or more neurotransmitters or reducing its
reuptakeReuptake, or re-uptake, is the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by a neurotransmitter transporter of a pre-synaptic neuron after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse....
from the synapses. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called
antagonistsA receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that does not provoke a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor, but blocks or dampens agonist-mediated responses...
, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.
Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the
homeostasisHomeostasis is the property of a system, either open or closed, that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition...
disrupted by the presence of the drug. Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter increases the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter, and the receptors themselves become more sensitive. This is called
sensitizationSensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm...
. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter causes a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called
desensitizationFor medical purposes, desensitization is a method to reduce or eliminate an organism's negative reaction to a substance or stimulus.For example, if a person with diabetes mellitus has a bad allergic reaction to taking a full dose of beef insulin, the doctor gives the person a very small amount of...
or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to underlie addiction.
Affected neurotransmitter systems
The following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. It should be noted that many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.
| Neurotransmitter/receptor |
Classification |
Examples |
AcetylcholineThe chemical compound acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter in both the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system in many organisms including humans. Acetylcholine is one of many neurotransmitters in the autonomic nervous system and the only neurotransmitter used in the motor division...
|
Cholinergic A receptor is cholinergic if it uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter.Cholinergic means related to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and is typically used in a neurological perspective. The parasympathetic nervous system is entirely cholinergic...
s (acetylcholine agonists) |
nicotineNicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants which constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots, and accumulating in the leaves...
, piracetamPiracetam is a nootropic drug. It appears to enhance cognition and memory, slow brain aging, increase blood flow and oxygen to the brain, aid stroke recovery, and ameliorate Alzheimer's, Down's syndrome, dementia, and dyslexia, among other diseases and conditions...
|
| Anticholinergics (acetylcholine antagonists) |
scopolamineScopolamine, also known as levo-duboisine, and hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug with muscarinic antagonist effects. It is obtained from plants of the family Solanaceae , such as henbane, jimson weed and Angel's Trumpets , and corkwood . It is among the secondary metabolites of these plants...
, dimenhydrinateDimenhydrinate is an over-the-counter drug used to prevent nausea and motion sickness. It is marketed in Portugal as Viabom, but in prescription format. It is most commonly used as pills, although it is also available in liquid form and in suppositories...
, diphenhydramineDiphenhydramine hydrochloride is a chemical mainly used as an antihistamine, antiemetic, sedative, and hypnotic. It is produced and marketed under the trade name Benadryl by McNeil-PPC in the U.S. and Canada, and Dimedrol in other countries...
, atropineAtropine is a tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade , jimsonweed , mandrake and other plants of the family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide variety of effects. It is a competitive antagonist for the muscarinic acetylcholine...
, most tricyclics |
 AdenosineAdenosine is a nucleoside composed of a molecule of adenine attached to a ribose sugar molecule moiety via a β-N 9-glycosidic bond....
|
Adenosine receptor antagonists |
caffeineCaffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that is a psychoactive stimulant drug. Caffeine was discovered by a German chemist, Friedrich Ferdinand Runge, in 1819. He coined the term kaffein, a chemical compound in coffee, which in English became caffeine...
, theobromineTheobromine, also known as xantheose, is a bitter alkaloid of the cacao plant, found in chocolate, as well as in a number of chocolate-free foods made from theobromine sources including the leaves of the tea plant, the kola or cola nut, and acai berries. It is in the methylxanthine class of...
, theophyllineTheophylline, also known as dimethylxanthine, is a methylxanthine drug used in therapy for respiratory diseases such as COPD or asthma under a variety of brand names. Due to its numerous side-effects, these drugs are now rarely administered for clinical use. As a member of the xanthine family, it...
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DopamineDopamine is a neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five types of dopamine receptors — D 1, D 2, D 3, D 4, and...
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Dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs) |
cocaineCocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and an appetite suppressant...
, methylphenidateMethylphenidate is the most commonly prescribed psychostimulant and is indicated in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome and narcolepsy, although off-label uses include treating lethargy, depression, neural insult, and obesity.In...
, amphetamineAmphetamine is a psychostimulant drug that is known to produce increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. Amphetamine is related to drugs such as methamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, which are a group of potent drugs that act by increasing levels of...
, bupropionBupropion is an atypical antidepressant that acts as a norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitor, and nicotinic antagonist...
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| Dopamine releasers |
amphetamineAmphetamine is a psychostimulant drug that is known to produce increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. Amphetamine is related to drugs such as methamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, which are a group of potent drugs that act by increasing levels of...
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| Dopamine agonists |
pramipexolePramipexole is a medication indicated for treating Parkinson's disease and restless legs syndrome . It is also sometimes used off-label as a treatment for cluster headache and to counteract the problems with sexual dysfunction experienced by some users of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor...
, L-DOPA (prodrugA prodrug is a pharmacological substance that is administered in an inactive form. Once administered, the prodrug is metabolised in vivo into an active metabolite. The rationale behind the use of a prodrug is generally for absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion optimization...
) |
| Dopamine receptor antagonists |
haloperidolHaloperidol is a typical antipsychotic. It is in the butyrophenone class of antipsychotic medications and has pharmacological effects similar to the phenothiazines....
, droperidolDroperidol is an antidopaminergic drug used as an antiemetic and antipsychotic. Droperidol is also often used for neuroleptanalgesic anesthesia and sedation in intensive-care treatment.-History and use:...
, many antipsychotics |
GABAGabâ or gabaa, for the Cebuano people , is the concept of a non-human and non-divine, imminent retribution. A sort of negative karma, it is generally seen as an evil effect on a person because of their wrongdoings or transgressions...
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GABA reuptake inhibitors |
tiagabineTiagabine is an anti-convulsive medication produced by Cephalon and marketed under the brand name Gabitril. The drug was discovered at Novo Nordisk in Denmark in 1988 and was co-developed with Abbott. After a period of co-promotion, Cephalon licensed Tiagabine from Abbott/Novo and now is the...
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| GABA receptor agonists |
ethanolEthanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug, best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages and in modern thermometers. Ethanol is one of the oldest recreational drugs...
, barbiturates, diazepamDiazepam , first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche, is a benzodiazepine derivative drug. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, skeletal muscle relaxant, and amnestic properties. It is commonly used for treating anxiety, insomnia, seizures, muscle spasms, restless legs...
and other benzodiazepines, muscimolMuscimol is the major psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus. Unlike psilocybin, a tryptamine, muscimol is a potent, selective agonist of the GABA A receptor.-Chemistry:...
, ibotenic acidIbotenic acid is a chemical compound that is naturally occurring in the mushrooms Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina, among others...
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| GABA antagonists |
thujone Thujone is a ketone and a monoterpene that exists in two stereoisomeric forms: -3-thujone or α-thujone and -3-thujone or β-thujone. It has a menthol odor. Even though it is best known for being a chemical in absinthe, recent tests show absinthe contains only small quantities of thujone, and may or...
, bicucullineBicuculline is a light-sensitive competitive antagonist of GABA A receptors. It was originally identified in 1932 in plant alkaloid extracts and has been isolated from Dicentra cucullaria, Adlumia fungosa, Fumariaceae, and several Corydalis species. Since it blocks the inhibitory action...
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NorepinephrineNoradrenaline or norepinephrine is a catecholamine with dual roles as a hormone and a neurotransmitter....
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Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors |
most non-SSRI antidepressants such as amoxapineAmoxapine is a tetracyclic antidepressant of the piperazine and dibenzoxazepine chemical classes.-Uses:...
, atomoxetineAtomoxetine is a non-stimulant drug approved for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder . It is sold in the form of the hydrochloride salt of atomoxetine, a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor...
, bupropionBupropion is an atypical antidepressant that acts as a norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitor, and nicotinic antagonist...
, venlafaxineVenlafaxine is an arylalkanolamine SNRI, although some authors dispute the claim that it inhibits NE reuptake. First introduced by Wyeth in 1993, it is licensed for the amelioration of MDD, as an anxiolytic, & comorbid indications. In 2007, venlafaxine was the sixth most commonly prescribed...
and the tricyclics |
| Norepinephrine releasers |
mianserin Mianserin is a psychoactive drug of the tetracyclic antidepressant chemical class which is classified as a noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant and has antidepressant, anxiolytic, hypnotic, antiemetic, orexigenic, and antihistamine effects...
, mirtazapineMirtazapine is a psychoactive drug of the benzazepine and tetracyclic antidepressant chemical classes which is used primarily as an antidepressant. It is sometimes also used as an anxiolytic, hypnotic, antiemetic, orexigenic, and antihistamine or antipruritic. Mirtazapine was introduced by...
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 SerotoninSerotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter. It is found extensively in the gastrointestinal tract of animals, and about 80 to 90 percent of the human body's total serotonin is located in the enterochromaffin cells in the gut, where it is used to regulate intestinal movements...
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Serotonin receptor agonists |
LSDLysergic acid diethylamide, LSD-25, LSD, formerly lysergide, commonly known as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family...
, psilocybinPsilocybin is a hallucinogenic indole of the tryptamine family, found in psilocybin mushrooms. It is present in hundreds of species of fungi, including those of the genus Psilocybe, such as Psilocybe cubensis and Psilocybe semilanceata, but also reportedly isolated from a dozen or so other genera...
, mescalineMescaline or 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally occurring psychedelic alkaloid of the phenethylamine class. It is mainly used as an entheogen, and a tool to supplement various practices for transcendence, including in meditation, psychonautics, art projects, and psychedelic...
, DMTDimethyltryptamine is a naturally-occurring tryptamine and potent psychedelic drug, found not only in many plants, but also in trace amounts in the human body where its natural function is undetermined. Structurally, it is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin and other psychedelic...
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| Serotonin reuptake inhibitors |
most antidepressants including tricyclics such as amitryptyline and SSRIs such as fluoxetineFluoxetine is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class. Fluoxetine is approved for the treatment of major depression , obsessive-compulsive disorder , bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa, panic disorder and premenstrual dysphoric disorder...
, sertralineSertraline hydrochloride is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class. It was introduced to the market by Pfizer in 1991. Sertraline is primarily used to treat major depression in adult outpatients as well as obsessive–compulsive, panic, and social anxiety disorders in...
and citalopramCitalopram is an antidepressant drug used to treat major depression associated with mood disorders. It is also used on occasion in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder and anxiety....
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| Serotonin releasers |
MDMA (ecstasy), mirtazapineMirtazapine is a psychoactive drug of the benzazepine and tetracyclic antidepressant chemical classes which is used primarily as an antidepressant. It is sometimes also used as an anxiolytic, hypnotic, antiemetic, orexigenic, and antihistamine or antipruritic. Mirtazapine was introduced by...
, DXM |
 AMPA receptorThe α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor is a non-NMDA-type ionotropic transmembrane receptor for glutamate that mediates fast synaptic transmission in the central nervous system . Its name is derived from its ability to be activated by the artificial glutamate analog, AMPA...
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AMPA receptor antagonists |
kynurenic acid Kynurenic acid is a product of the normal metabolism of amino acid L-tryptophan. It has been shown that kynurenic acid possesses neuroactive activity. It acts as an antiexcitotoxic and anticonvulsant, most likely through acting as an antagonist at excitatory amino acid receptors...
, NBQXNBQX is an AMPA receptor antagonist.Disodium salt version can be dissolved in water at higher concentrations ....
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 Cannabinoid receptorThe cannabinoid receptors are a class of cell membrane receptors under the G-protein coupled receptor superfamily. Cannabinoid receptors are activated by ligands, which are lipid compounds known collectively as cannabinoids...
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Cannabinoid receptor agonists |
THC The acronym THC has several possible meanings:* Tetrahydrocannabinol, the main active chemical compound in Cannabis* Toronto Hemp Company, the world's largest Hemp and Cannabis Culture store, located in Toronto, Canada....
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| Cannabinoid receptor inverse agonists |
RimonabantRimonabant is an anorectic anti-obesity drug. It is an inverse agonist for the cannabinoid receptor CB1...
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| Melanocortin The melanocortins are a group of peptide hormones which include adrenocorticotropic hormone and the different forms of melanocyte-stimulating hormone . They can be synthetic or endogenously produced from proopiomelanocortin in the pituitary gland. The melanocortins exert their effects by binding...
receptor |
Melanocortin receptor agonists |
bremelanotide Bremelanotide is a compound under drug development by Palatin Technologies as a treatment for hemorrhagic shock and reperfusion injury...
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| NMDA receptor The NMDA receptor , a glutamate receptor, is the predominant molecular device for controlling synaptic plasticity and memory function....
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NMDA receptor antagonist NMDA receptor antagonists are a class of anesthetics that work to antagonize, or inhibit the action of, the N-methyl d-aspartate receptor . They are used as anesthesia for animals and, less commonly, for humans; the state of anesthesia they induce is referred to as dissociative anesthesia...
s |
ethanolEthanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug, best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages and in modern thermometers. Ethanol is one of the oldest recreational drugs...
, ketamineKetamine is a drug used in human and veterinary medicine developed by Parke-Davis in 1962. Its hydrochloride salt is sold as Ketanest, Ketaset, and Ketalar. Pharmacologically, ketamine is classified as an NMDA receptor antagonist...
, PCPPhencyclidine , also known as angel dust and other street names, is a recreational, dissociative drug formerly used as an anaesthetic agent, exhibiting hallucinogenic and neurotoxic effects...
, DXM, Nitrous OxideNitrous oxide, commonly known as happy gas or laughing gas, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula N 2O. At room temperature, it is a colorless non-flammable gas, with a pleasant, slightly sweet odor and taste. It is used in surgery and dentistry for its anesthetic and analgesic...
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| GHB receptor Gamma-hydroxybutyrate receptor or GHB receptor , originally identified as GPR172A, is a G protein-coupled receptor that binds gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid .-History:...
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GHB receptor agonists |
GHB, T-HCA T-HCA, or trans-4-hydroxycrotonic acid, is a drug used in scientific research. It is structurally related to GHB and binds to the GHB receptor with 4-fold higher affinity than GHB itself, but is not an agonist for the primary sedative target of GHB, the GABAB receptor, and so does not...
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| Opioid receptor Opioid receptors are a group of G-protein coupled receptors with opioids as ligands. The endogenous opioids are dynorphins, enkephalins, endorphins, endomorphins and nociceptin...
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μ-opioid receptor agonists |
morphineMorphine is a highly potent opiate analgesic psychoactive drug, is the principal active ingredient in Papaver somniferum , is considered to be the prototypical opioid. Like other opioids, e.g...
, heroinHeroin, or diacetylmorphine , also known as diamorphine , is a semi-synthetic opioid drug synthesized from morphine, a derivative of the opium poppy. It is the 3,6-diacetyl ester of morphine...
, oxycodoneOxycodone is an opioid analgesic medication synthesized from opium-derived thebaine. It was developed in 1916 in Germany, as one of several new semi-synthetic opioids in an attempt to improve on the existing opiates and opioids: morphine, diacetylmorphine , and codeine.Currently it is best known as...
, codeineCodeine or methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic, antitussive, and antidiarrheal properties.-History:Codeine is an alkaloid found in opium and other poppy saps like Papaver bracteatum, the Iranian poppy, in concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 3.0 percent...
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| μ-opioid receptor inverse agonists |
naloxoneNaloxone is a drug used to counter the effects of opioid overdose, for example heroin or morphine overdose. Naloxone is specifically used to counteract life-threatening depression of the central nervous system and respiratory system. Naloxone is also experimentally used in the treatment for CIPA;...
, naltrexoneNaltrexone is an opioid receptor antagonist used primarily in the management of alcohol dependence and opioid dependence. It is marketed in generic form as its hydrochloride salt, naltrexone hydrochloride, and marketed under the trade names Revia and Depade...
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| κ-opioid receptor agonists |
salvinorin ASalvinorin A is the main active psychotropic molecule in Salvia divinorum, a Mexican plant which has a long history of use as an entheogen by indigenous Mazatec shamans...
, butorphanolButorphanol is a morphinan-type synthetic opioid analgesic. Brand name Stadol was recently discontinued by the manufacturer. It is now only available in its generic formulations, manufactured by Novex, Mylan, Apotex and Roxane. Butorphanol is most closely structurally related to levorphanol...
, nalbuphineNalbuphine is a synthetic opioid used commercially as an analgesic under a variety of trade names, including Nubain. It is noteworthy in part for the fact that at low dosages, it is found much more effective by women than by men, and may even increase pain in men, leading to its discontinuation in...
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| κ-opioid receptor inverse agonists |
buprenorphineBuprenorphine is a semi-synthetic opiate with partial agonist and antagonist actions. Buprenorphine hydrochloride was first marketed in the 1980s by Reckitt & Colman as an analgesic, available generally as Temgesic 0.2 mg sublingual tablets, and as Buprenex in a 0.3 mg/ml injectable...
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Monoamine oxidaseMonoamine oxidases are enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines. They are found bound to the outer membrane of mitochondria in most cell types in the body. The enzyme was discovered by Mary Hare in the liver, and received the name of tyramine oxidase...
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Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) |
phenelzinePhenelzine is a psychoactive drug of the hydrazine chemical class which is used as an antidepressant and anxiolytic or antipanic agent. It acts as a nonselective and irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor...
, iproniazidIproniazid is a hydrazine drug that was previously used as an antidepressant. It is an irreversible and nonselective monoamine oxidase inhibitor . It has been widely discontinued.-History:Iproniazid was the first antidepressant ever marketed...
, tranylcypromineTranylcypromine is a psychoactive drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes which acts as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor —it is a nonselective and irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme monoamine oxidase...
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| bind to MAO protein transporter |
amphetamineAmphetamine is a psychostimulant drug that is known to produce increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. Amphetamine is related to drugs such as methamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, which are a group of potent drugs that act by increasing levels of...
, methamphetamineMethamphetamine also known as metamfetamine , dextromethamphetamine, methylamphetamine, N-methylamphetamine, and desoxyephedrine) is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug. Methamphetamine enters the brain and triggers a cascading release of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine...
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Addiction
Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction. Addiction can be divided into two types: psychological addiction, by which a user feels compelled to use a drug despite negative physical or societal consequence, and
physical dependencePhysical dependence refers to a state resulting from chronic use of a drug that has produced tolerance and where negative physical symptoms of withdrawal result from abrupt discontinuation or dosage reduction. Physical dependence can develop from low-dose therapeutic use of certain medications as...
, by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically uncomfortable or even medically harmful
withdrawalWithdrawal can refer to any sort of separation, but is most commonly used to describe the group of symptoms that occurs upon the abrupt discontinuation/separation or a decrease in dosage of the intake of medications, recreational drugs, and/or alcohol...
symptoms. Not all drugs are physically addictive, but any activity that stimulates the brain's dopaminergic reward system — typically, any pleasurable activity — can lead to psychological addiction. Drugs that are most likely to cause addiction are drugs that directly stimulate the dopaminergic system, like
cocaineCocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and an appetite suppressant...
and amphetamines. Drugs that only indirectly stimulate the dopaminergic system, such as psychedelics, are not as likely to be addictive.
Many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in
drug rehabilitationDrug rehabilitation is an umbrella term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and so-called street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or amphetamines...
, with varying degrees of success, and many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.
Common forms of
rehabilitationDrug rehabilitation is an umbrella term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and so-called street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or amphetamines...
include
psychotherapyPsychotherapy or personal counseling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living.It aims to increase the individual's sense of their own well-being...
, support groups and
pharmacotherapyPharmacotherapy is that area of pharmacy practice that is responsible for ensuring the safe, appropriate, and economical use of drugs in patient care. A speciailist in pharmacotherapy has responsibility for direct patient care, often functions as a member of a multidisciplinary team and is...
, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological
withdrawalWithdrawal can refer to any sort of separation, but is most commonly used to describe the group of symptoms that occurs upon the abrupt discontinuation/separation or a decrease in dosage of the intake of medications, recreational drugs, and/or alcohol...
symptoms while a user is going through detox.
MethadoneMethadone is a synthetic opioid, used medically as an analgesic, antitussive and a maintenance anti-addictive for use in patients on opioids. It was developed in Germany in 1937...
, itself an
opioidAn opioid is a chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract...
and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for
heroinHeroin, or diacetylmorphine , also known as diamorphine , is a semi-synthetic opioid drug synthesized from morphine, a derivative of the opium poppy. It is the 3,6-diacetyl ester of morphine...
addiction. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using
psychedelicsA psychedelic substance is a psychoactive drug whose primary action is to alter the cognition and perception of the mind. Psychedelics are part of a wider class of psychoactive drugs known as hallucinogens, which also includes related substances such as dissociatives and deliriants...
such as
ibogaineIbogaine is a naturally occurring psychoactive compound found in a number of plants, principally in a member of the dogbane family known as iboga . Ibogaine-containing preparations are used in medicinal and ritual purposes within African spiritual traditions of the Bwiti, who claim to have learned...
to treat and even cure addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.
Legality
The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of
recent history; the
Opium WarsThe Opium Wars , also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, were the climax of trade disputes and diplomatic difficulties between China under the Qing Dynasty and the British Empire after China sought to restrict British opium traffickers...
and
ProhibitionIn the history of the United States, Prohibition, also known as The Noble Experiment, is the period from 1919 to 1933, during which the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol for consumption were banned nationally as mandated in the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States...
are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the
Single Convention on Narcotic DrugsThe Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is an international treaty to prohibit production and supply of specific drugs and of drugs with similar effects except under licence for specific purposes, such as medical treatment and research...
, an international
treatyA treaty is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as: agreement, protocol, covenant, convention, exchange of letters, etc...
signed in 1961 as an Act of the
United NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace...
. Signed by 73 nations including the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, the USSR,
IndiaIndia, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal...
, and the
United KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight addiction to
recreational drugsRecreational drug use is the use of psychoactive drugs for recreational purposes rather than for work, approved medical or spiritual purposes, although the distinction is not always clear ....
by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs. All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the
NetherlandsThe Netherlands is a country in Northwestern Europe, constituting the major portion of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east...
, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws.
In the United States, the
Food and Drug AdministrationThe Food and Drug Administration is a Government agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is responsible for regulating and supervising the safety of foods, tobacco products, dietary supplements, Medication drugs, vaccines, Biopharmaceutical, blood transfusion,...
(FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are
over the counterOver-the-counter drugs are medicines that may be sold to a customer without a prescription from a health care professional, as compared to prescription drugs, which may only be sold to customers possessing a valid prescription...
and which are only available with a
prescriptionA prescription is a health-care program implemented by a physician or other medical practitioner in the form of instructions that govern the plan of care for an individual patient. Prescriptions may include orders to be performed by a patient, caretaker, nurse, pharmacist or other therapist....
. However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. The
Controlled Substances ActThe Controlled Substances Act was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. The CSA is the federal U.S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use and distribution of certain...
of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal
National Minimum Drinking Age ActThe National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 , also called the Federal Uniform Drinking Age Act, was passed on July 17 1984 by the United States Congress as a mechanism whereby all states would become thereafter required to legislate and enforce the age of 21 years as a minimum age for purchasing...
penalizes states for not following a national drinking age. Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments. Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.
At the beginning of the 21st century, legally prescribed illegal psychoactive drugs used for legitimate purposes have been targeted by the US Justice System.
In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning
over the counterOver-the-counter drugs are medicines that may be sold to a customer without a prescription from a health care professional, as compared to prescription drugs, which may only be sold to customers possessing a valid prescription...
psychoactive medications in antiemetics and
antitussivesA cough medicine is a medicinal drug used to treat coughing and related conditions. Dry coughs are treated with cough suppressants that suppress the body's urge to cough, while productive coughs are treated with expectorants that loosen mucus from the respiratory tract...
. Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients' judgement and autonomy.
See also
- Contact high
Contact high is a phenomenon that sometimes occurs in people and animals who come into contact with someone who is under the influence of drugs. It involves a supposed transfer of the psychological state of highness. This is often attributed to things such as stale latent cannabis smoke and...
- Demand reduction
Demand reduction refers to efforts aimed at reducing public desire for illegal and illicit drugs. This drug policy is in contrast to the reduction of drug supply, but the two policies are often implemented together...
- Designer drug
Designer drug is a term used to describe psychoactive drugs which are created to get around existing drug laws, usually by modifying the molecular structures of existing drugs to varying degrees, or less commonly by finding drugs with entirely different chemical structures that produce similar...
- Drug
A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.In pharmacology, a...
- Drug addiction
Drug addiction is a pathological condition which arises due to frequent drug use. The disorder of addiction involves the progression of acute drug use to the development of drug-seeking behavior, the vulnerability to relapse, and the decreased, slowed ability to respond to naturally rewarding stimuli...
- Drug rehabilitation
Drug rehabilitation is an umbrella term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and so-called street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or amphetamines...
- Hard and soft drugs
Hard and soft drugs are controversial and mostly colloquial terms for – respectively – especially damaging psychoactive drugs, and drugs that are believed to be non-addictive and less damaging than hard drugs...
- Neuropsychopharmacology
Technical advancements in recent years have allowed progress toward the understanding of the brain and how drugs can be made to affect it. The term increasingly used to include all of the biological science involved is,...
- Poly drug use
Polydrug use refers to the use of two or more psychoactive drugs in combination to achieve a particular effect. Often called "cross fading", it is usual among problem drug users who have a multi-drug dependence...
- Psychedelic plants
Psychedelic plants are plants that contain psychedelic drugs. Some of them have been used for thousands of years for religious purposes.-Cannabis:Cannabis is a popular psychedelic plant...
- Responsible drug use
Responsible drug use is a harm reduction strategy which argues that people can use drugs, with reduced or eliminated risk of negatively affecting other parts of their lives or those of others...
External links