Provincetown Players
Encyclopedia
The Provincetown Players was an amateur group of writers and artists who, at the early part of the 20th Century, wanted to see a change in American theatre and created a company committed to producing new plays by exclusively American playwrights. Their efforts launched the careers of Eugene O'Neill
and Susan Glaspell
, helped to expand the "Little Theatre" movement in America, and set a new course for American theatre in the Modern period.
presented their plays on July 15, 1915 on the veranda of Hutchins Hapgood
and Neith Boyce
's rented ocean-view cottage. The two plays were Constancy by Neith Boyce
and Suppressed Desires by husband and wife George Cram Cook
and Susan Glaspell
. Boyce had previously hosted a reading of her play in her home and this caused Cook and Glaspell to suggest adding their play as a social event for their friends. These playwrights had experienced rejection of their plays by the recently formed Washington Square Players
and this was a way for them to present their plays to an audience.
Two makeshift sets were quickly organized by Robert Edmond Jones
, already the most prominent American practicing the "New Stagecraft," who was vacationing in Provincetown, Massachusetts
with them that summer. Many friends and neighbors not in attendance that night heard about the plays and wanted to see them, so they were presented in a makeshift theatre on Lewis Wharf owned by Mary Heaton Vorse
. Led by George Cram Cook
, two more plays were presented that summer, with amateur acting by artists that included Charles Demuth
, Bror Julius Olsson Nordfeldt
, and Cook. Back in Greenwich Village, New York, where most of the group lived, Cook stirred up enthusiasm that fall and winter such that an even greater number of writers and artists made their way to Provincetown the next summer. These new participants included journalist and poet John Reed, writer Louise Bryant
, painter Marsden Hartley
, artists William and Marguerite Zorach, the "Hobo Poet" Harry Kemp
, editor of The Masses Max Eastman
, Floyd Dell
, and Eugene O'Neill
. Cook, who already had pursued a number of careers, including a professor of English, farmer, author, and editor of the Friday Literary Review in Chicago, saw in the newly organized group the potential to create a Platonic community of artists who could organically and collectively create new plays that could establish an American identity in theatre.
Despite a mythology that presents O'Neill just happening to show up in Provincetown with a trunk full of plays, recent research proves that O'Neill knew of the Players and came to Cape Cod specifically to participate with them (John Reed had invited him). Though the group initially rejected some of O’Neill’s earliest written plays, which had been self-published with help of his father, prominent American actor James O’Neill, he finally read for them his play Bound East for Cardiff, a play set at sea. Glaspell wrote that when they heard this play, the group "knew what they were for." The play’s plot is simple, a sailor lies dying and talks to his long-time mate as the continued regimen of sailing a ship in a storm goes on around them. The play’s dialogue featured crude yet poetic sailor talk, possessing a new vibrancy that had yet to be part of the theatre’s new realism. Added to the play’s presentation was the highly effective sense of reality given by the Wharf Theatre over the sea, with fog and the sound of waves surrounding the audience. Though already a recognized author, Glaspell began her career as a playwright that summer after her husband announced she was writing a play, though he had yet to inform her. The result was Trifles, still one of the most celebrated one-act plays in the American canon, based on a journalistic investigation that Glaspell made as a newspaperwoman in Iowa. Trifles tells the story of the murder investigation of a husband by a quiet prairie woman. The play is unique in that the main character, the wife, is never present on stage. The wives of the investigators, who are dismissed and ignored in the process, begin to recognize clues within the woman’s home and figure out the abuses she suffered that led to the woman murdering her husband. These women choose in the end, in solidarity, to keep the condemning facts to themselves. One unexpected event that summer was when parts of the newly-refurbished Wharf Theatre caught on fire on July 6, 1916, just days before the first bill of plays was to be presented. The photo above shows the group members rushing to put the fire out.
In those first two years, O'Neill had six one-act plays presented: Before Breakfast, Fog, The Sniper, Ile, The Long Voyage Home, and The Rope. Glaspell had four plays produced: Trifles, The People, Close the Book, and Woman's Honor. Edna St. Vincent Millay
, fresh from Vassar and with early notoriety for her poetry, auditioned as an actress for the company and was cast. A few years later, her role would change to promising young playwright after her anti-war allegory, Aria da Capo, was produced. The Provincetown's first full-length play was given in April 1918: The Athenian Women by George Cram Cook. In the audience on opening night was political activist Emma Goldman, whose niece and nephew-in-law were involved in the group. Goldman brought with her that evening her friend and colleague in political activities, Mary Eleanor Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald eventually became the business manager of the Provincetown Players and was one of the company's few paid employees, remaining at the helm of the different permutations of the company that lasted until 1929.
. This is the theatre at 133 Macdougal Street, though many times since refurbished, that is known as the Provincetown Playhouse
. In the fall of 2008, against the wishes of theater historians and preservationists, New York University (who owns the building) demolished the Playhouse to create a new foundation so that offices could be expanded for their Law School, but have vowed to replace it with a new theatre in the same air space (see more below).
The first performance in the new theatre took place on November 22, 1918, just days after the end of World War I was declared, with a bill of one-act plays by Millay, O'Neill, and Florence Kiper Frank. The second bill of the season featured O'Neill's “mood” play, the lyrical The Moon of the Carribees, another of his sea plays. When the tensions between the young and the old guard of the company reached an all-time high, Cook decided to take a year sabbatical as their leader, abdicating to James Light, a young actor and director whose strong personality clashed at times with Cook’s. Cook left with the assurance that Ida Rauh, the company’s most revered actress, was co-director with Light and would look after his priorities. However, after her direction of O’Neill’s The Dreamy Kid, in which she made the company only the second to cast all black actors in a play produced by a “white” theatre company, she also abdicated to Light. The most significant play that season was Millay's Aria da Capo, called by New York Times critic Alexander Woollcott
“the most beautiful and most interesting play in the English language now to be seen in New York.”
Cook returned to the helm for the season of 1920-21, which quickly became significant for the production of O'Neill's The Emperor Jones, the first of the Provincetown plays to be a bona fide "hit," and, eventually, the production was moved uptown to Broadway to the Princess Theatre. Before the move, however, the Provincetown was flooded with ticket requests, bringing the number of subscribers to over 1600. The mostly amateur company with the highest of ideals for American playwrights was now challenged with the perils of success. New plays soon were often selected for their potential to transfer to professional theatres and this caused ideological clashes among the company. These differences of opinion deepened and, following a contentious rehearsal period of O’Neill’s The Hairy Ape during the 1921-1922 season, in which Cook was relieved of his duties as director by O’Neill, Cook realized that he had no playwrights of the quality of O’Neill or Glaspell to develop that justified the Players to continue in their mission. After their sixth New York season in 1922, a one-year period of inactivity was called for by the members. Before the season was over, Cook and Glaspell left to live in Greece where, less than two years later, Cook died and was buried in Delphi.
By 1922, under "Jig" Cook's leadership, the Provincetown Players could boast of having produced ninety-three new American plays by forty-seven American playwrights; these included plays by Wilbur Daniel Steele, Edna Ferber, Bosworth Crocker, Djuna Barnes, Mike Gold, Harry Kemp, James Oppenheim, Maxwell Bodenheim, Rita Wellman, Lawrence Langner, Theodore Dreiser, and Evelyn Scott. After their presentation of O'Neill's expressionistic The Emperor Jones, featuring a critically praised performance by African-American actor Charles Gilpin
, James Weldon Johnson
claimed that the Provincetown "was the initial and greatest force in opening up the way for the Negro on the dramatic stage." A remarkable feature of the group was the unusually large quantity and quality of participation of women, both in artistic and management functions. In their six short years in New York, the Players had presented the first truly experimental American plays, including expressionistic, futuristic, and surrealistic plays, plays with highly political themes, poetic and verse plays, allegory plays, and plays that showed the plight of lower and middle class Americans and immigrants. The group had also launched the careers of O’Neill and Glaspell, both of whom would win numerous awards, including Pulitzer Prizes for Drama. Glaspell presented subtle yet powerfully complex women as lead characters and, without a thumping-pulpit approach, became important as a feminist playwright who bridged the Victorian era with the modern. In short, the Provincetown Players launched American playwriting into the modern era and made a pathway for serious American playwrights to begin writing artistic plays about serious issues.
, and author and critic Kenneth Macgowan
, with Macgowan named as the director of the Playhouse. After months of bitter fighting about the name of this new organization, particularly with Glaspell, it was decided to drop the title "The Provincetown Players" and the company was called "The Experimental Theatre, Inc." The playhouse, however, was still known as the Provincetown. This new group’s first season began in January 1924 with the first American production of The Spook Sonata by August Strindberg
, followed by a very successful revival of Anna Cora Mowatt
's 1850 comedy Fashion. During the next season (1924–25), three of the group's larger plays, including O'Neill's tragedy Desire Under the Elms, were staged at the Greenwich Village Theatre, which was on the west side of Seventh Avenue and Christopher Street at Sheridan Square (now the site of a pharmacy and a bank). One of the company's significant plays was All God’s Chillun’ Got Wings, featuring white actress Mary Blair kissing the hand of her African-American husband, played by Paul Robeson
. The play’s opening was reported on the front page of many national newspapers, particularly when New York City’s mayor John Francis Hylan did not allow the children actors originally scheduled for the first scene to perform. On opening night the Playhouse was surrounded by police because of threats. The experimental nature of these productions during this period allowed Jones the freedom to try many elements of "new stagecraft," with Jones even directing a production of Gilbert and Sullivan's comic opera Patience in December 1924. Keeping two theatres running, however, proved to be too much of a challenge, so after only two years at the helm, the triumvirate left to focus their efforts on experimentation at the Greenwich Village Theatre alone and, eventually, to focus on their own separate work.
This led to James Light being named the new director of a revitalized group of players, still called the Experimental Theatre Company, who continued to work in the Provincetown Playhouse. Though they staged fifteen productions over the next four seasons, including Paul Green's Pulitzer Prize-winning folk drama, In Abraham's Bosom, operas by Gluck and Mozart, and presented new actors like the young Bette Davis, no great reason remained to keep the company at the Provincetown Playhouse. In an effort to start anew, money was raised so that, by the early fall of 1929, the group was about to relocate to the Garrick Theatre uptown. Unfortunately, the stock market crash on October 29 of that year caused their financial collapse and the company ceased to exist.
has been the home of many independently produced plays. It was also the home base for the Community Theatre division of the Federal Theatre Project (1936–1939), used as a training center to send directors, actors, teachers and designers out to the five boroughs of New York City to create theatre projects. The lease was held for many years by a group that specialized in presenting Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas and who rented the playhouse to other theatre companies and productions. In 1960, the Provincetown was used to produce the long-running double bill of Samuel Beckett
's Krapp's Last Tape and Edward Albee
's The Zoo Story, Albee's first play produced in New York City. Marty Martin's monologue Gertrude Stein Gertrude Stein, performed by Pat Carroll, was transferred to the Provincetown for an extended run in October 1979. The Playhouse continued to be used to premiere plays by playwrights that included Lanford Wilson
, David Mamet
and John Guare
. The playhouse’s longest running play was the five-year run of Vampire Lesbians of Sodom (1985–1990) by Charles Busch
, which was also its last major production before being shut down for many years, needing building code upgrades. In 1998, a major refurbishment was given by New York University, who has owned the theatre since the early 1980s; unfortunately, the domed cyclorama that had survived for nearly 80 years was destroyed by accident in the construction. This historic Playhouse was being used by New York University's Educational Theatre department, who yearly hosts an award-winning reading series of new plays for young audiences by significant American playwrights. The theatre was also used regularly by a group committed to the producing of the O’Neill canon. Unfortunately, in 2008, NYU decided that the need to strengthen the 1840 brownstone's foundation so they could add floors above for offices necessitated them to tear the original structure down, though they preserved the perimeter walls of the original theatre as part of the refurbishment. They have announced that a new playhouse will be constructed in the same site and will be ready for use in 2010. NYU promises that the spirit in which the Provincetown Playhouse was originally created will continue as a driving force to enable future dramatists, theatre practitioners and teachers to flourish and grow.
, has had a more permanent influence on the new American theatre than the Provincetown Playhouse, by way of the plays and talented workers it funneled into the commercial theatre." Adele Heller in "The New Theatre," part of 1915: The Cultural Moment, writes that "The Provincetown Players created one of the most valuable of the early experimental theatres that helped to establish American drama as a serious art form. The plays its members wrote reflected the ferment of the times and gave rise to a theatre with a distinctly American voice." It’s in this "hallowed ground in the region of Washington Square," in the words of theatre critic William Archer
, "that we must look for the real birthplace of the American drama."
Eugene O'Neill
Eugene Gladstone O'Neill was an American playwright and Nobel laureate in Literature. His poetically titled plays were among the first to introduce into American drama techniques of realism earlier associated with Russian playwright Anton Chekhov, Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen, and Swedish...
and Susan Glaspell
Susan Glaspell
Susan Keating Glaspell was an American Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright, actress, director, novelist, biographer and poet. She was a founding member of the Provincetown Players, one of the most important collaboratives in the development of modern drama in the United States...
, helped to expand the "Little Theatre" movement in America, and set a new course for American theatre in the Modern period.
Beginnings
The Provincetown Players began when a group of writers and artists who were vacationing in Provincetown, MassachusettsProvincetown, Massachusetts
Provincetown is a New England town located at the extreme tip of Cape Cod in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 3,431 at the 2000 census, with an estimated 2007 population of 3,174...
presented their plays on July 15, 1915 on the veranda of Hutchins Hapgood
Hutchins Hapgood
Hutchins Hapgood was an U.S. journalist, author, individualist anarchist/philosophical anarchist....
and Neith Boyce
Neith Boyce
Neith Boyce Hapgood was a U.S. novelist and playwright.She married Hutchins Hapgood on June 22, 1899...
's rented ocean-view cottage. The two plays were Constancy by Neith Boyce
Neith Boyce
Neith Boyce Hapgood was a U.S. novelist and playwright.She married Hutchins Hapgood on June 22, 1899...
and Suppressed Desires by husband and wife George Cram Cook
George Cram Cook
George Cram Cook or Jig Cook was an American novelist, poet, and playwright. He was a lover of ancient Greece, an idealist who dreamt of spiritual communism....
and Susan Glaspell
Susan Glaspell
Susan Keating Glaspell was an American Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright, actress, director, novelist, biographer and poet. She was a founding member of the Provincetown Players, one of the most important collaboratives in the development of modern drama in the United States...
. Boyce had previously hosted a reading of her play in her home and this caused Cook and Glaspell to suggest adding their play as a social event for their friends. These playwrights had experienced rejection of their plays by the recently formed Washington Square Players
Washington Square Players
The Washington Square Players was a New York theatrical production company founded in 1914. Its debut production in 1915 was a collection of one-act plays, some of which had been written for the event. In 1916 the troupe started presenting full-length plays, among which were Shaw's Mrs Warren's...
and this was a way for them to present their plays to an audience.
Two makeshift sets were quickly organized by Robert Edmond Jones
Robert Edmond Jones
Robert Edmond Jones was an American scenic, lighting, and costume designer. He is credited with incorporating the new stagecraft into the American drama. His designs sought to integrate the scenic elements into the storytelling instead of having them stand separate and indifferent from the play’s...
, already the most prominent American practicing the "New Stagecraft," who was vacationing in Provincetown, Massachusetts
Provincetown, Massachusetts
Provincetown is a New England town located at the extreme tip of Cape Cod in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 3,431 at the 2000 census, with an estimated 2007 population of 3,174...
with them that summer. Many friends and neighbors not in attendance that night heard about the plays and wanted to see them, so they were presented in a makeshift theatre on Lewis Wharf owned by Mary Heaton Vorse
Mary Heaton Vorse
Mary Heaton Vorse or Mary Heaton Vorse O'Brien was an American journalist, labor activist, and novelist. Vorse was outspoken and active in peace and social justice causes, such as women's suffrage, civil rights, pacifism , socialism, child labor, infant mortality, labor disputes, and affordable...
. Led by George Cram Cook
George Cram Cook
George Cram Cook or Jig Cook was an American novelist, poet, and playwright. He was a lover of ancient Greece, an idealist who dreamt of spiritual communism....
, two more plays were presented that summer, with amateur acting by artists that included Charles Demuth
Charles Demuth
Charles Demuth was an American watercolorist who turned to oils late in his career, developing a style of painting known as Precisionism....
, Bror Julius Olsson Nordfeldt
Bror Julius Olsson Nordfeldt
Bror Julius Olsson Nordfeldt was a Swedish-American artist who painted seascapes and depictions of New Mexico's indigenous culture.-Background:...
, and Cook. Back in Greenwich Village, New York, where most of the group lived, Cook stirred up enthusiasm that fall and winter such that an even greater number of writers and artists made their way to Provincetown the next summer. These new participants included journalist and poet John Reed, writer Louise Bryant
Louise Bryant
Louise Bryant was an American journalist and writer. She was best known for her Marxist and anarchist beliefs and her essays on radical political and feminist themes. Bryant published articles in several radical left journals during her life, including Alexander Berkman's The Blast...
, painter Marsden Hartley
Marsden Hartley
Marsden Hartley was an American Modernist painter, poet, and essayist.-Early life and education:Hartley was born in Lewiston, Maine, where his English parents had settled. He was the youngest of nine children. His mother died when he was eight, and his father remarried four years later to Martha...
, artists William and Marguerite Zorach, the "Hobo Poet" Harry Kemp
Harry Kemp
thumb|rightHarry Hibbard Kemp was an American poet and prose writer of the twentieth century. He was known as "the "Vagabond Poet, the Villon of America, the Hobo Poet, or the Tramp Poet," and was a well-known popular literary figure of his era, the "hero of adolescent Americans."-Life and...
, editor of The Masses Max Eastman
Max Eastman
Max Forrester Eastman was an American writer on literature, philosophy and society, a poet, and a prominent political activist. For many years, Eastman was a supporter of socialism, a leading patron of the Harlem Renaissance and an activist for a number of liberal and radical causes...
, Floyd Dell
Floyd Dell
Floyd Dell was an American author and critic.-Biography:Floyd Dell was born in Barry, Illinois on June 28, 1887....
, and Eugene O'Neill
Eugene O'Neill
Eugene Gladstone O'Neill was an American playwright and Nobel laureate in Literature. His poetically titled plays were among the first to introduce into American drama techniques of realism earlier associated with Russian playwright Anton Chekhov, Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen, and Swedish...
. Cook, who already had pursued a number of careers, including a professor of English, farmer, author, and editor of the Friday Literary Review in Chicago, saw in the newly organized group the potential to create a Platonic community of artists who could organically and collectively create new plays that could establish an American identity in theatre.
Despite a mythology that presents O'Neill just happening to show up in Provincetown with a trunk full of plays, recent research proves that O'Neill knew of the Players and came to Cape Cod specifically to participate with them (John Reed had invited him). Though the group initially rejected some of O’Neill’s earliest written plays, which had been self-published with help of his father, prominent American actor James O’Neill, he finally read for them his play Bound East for Cardiff, a play set at sea. Glaspell wrote that when they heard this play, the group "knew what they were for." The play’s plot is simple, a sailor lies dying and talks to his long-time mate as the continued regimen of sailing a ship in a storm goes on around them. The play’s dialogue featured crude yet poetic sailor talk, possessing a new vibrancy that had yet to be part of the theatre’s new realism. Added to the play’s presentation was the highly effective sense of reality given by the Wharf Theatre over the sea, with fog and the sound of waves surrounding the audience. Though already a recognized author, Glaspell began her career as a playwright that summer after her husband announced she was writing a play, though he had yet to inform her. The result was Trifles, still one of the most celebrated one-act plays in the American canon, based on a journalistic investigation that Glaspell made as a newspaperwoman in Iowa. Trifles tells the story of the murder investigation of a husband by a quiet prairie woman. The play is unique in that the main character, the wife, is never present on stage. The wives of the investigators, who are dismissed and ignored in the process, begin to recognize clues within the woman’s home and figure out the abuses she suffered that led to the woman murdering her husband. These women choose in the end, in solidarity, to keep the condemning facts to themselves. One unexpected event that summer was when parts of the newly-refurbished Wharf Theatre caught on fire on July 6, 1916, just days before the first bill of plays was to be presented. The photo above shows the group members rushing to put the fire out.
New York City
By the end of the summer of 1916, after some minor recognition in the Boston papers, the group decided to form an official organization and a constitution and initial process for working was agreed upon. The group's primary purpose was to give venue to American playwrights and new American plays, purposefully encouraging plays that would be in contrast to the melodramas and triangle-relationship plays they observed producers were primarily presenting on Broadway. In doing so, the group quickly gave larger voice to the burgeoning "Little Theatre" movement taking place across the country. Initially led by George Cram Cook and John Reed, the Provincetown Players moved to New York City that fall and turned the first floor parlor of an apartment at 139 Macdougal Street, an 1840 brownstone row house, into a theatre. The building was located in the heart of bohemian Greenwich Village, next door to the Liberal Club and Polly Holladay's restaurant, just off the southwest corner of Washington Square. The group constructed a ten-and-one-half-by-fourteen-foot stage and added wooden benches to seat an audience of about 140, the benches said to be the most uncomfortable you could imagine. They opened their first bill in New York City on November 3, 1916, presenting Floyd Dell’s satire King Arthur’s Socks; Bryant’s The Game, significant more for its sets designed by the Zorachs; and O’Neill’s Bound East for Cardiff. The next bill featured more plays originally presented in Provincetown, including Reed’s Freedom and Cook and Glaspell’s Suppressed Desires. The third bill featured a unique and experimental verse drama by Imagist poet and editor Alfred Kreymborg titled Lima Beans, as well as O’Neill’s monologue play Before Breakfast. Though these new plays were fulfilling the experimental nature of their stated mission, the group almost folded by Christmas when they ran out of quality new plays and found the interest waning within their larger membership in company decisions. Their acting was decidedly amateur and they were somewhat saved in this by the new directorial leadership of Nina Moise after she joined them in the spring of 1917. Moise was a professional actor and had studied directing in college, and she began to give shape and clarity to the staging of the plays. This, along with the good fortune of having the Stage Society of New York purchase almost half of the company's available subscriptions, allowed them to prosper in their first year. Early on, Reed deferred his leadership when he needed serious kidney surgery and had journalistic responsibilities and Cook became the main leader of the Players. Early disagreements in the company centered on whether to allow critics to attend, whether to seek publicity for the productions and actors, and there was a constant tension between Cook and the career-minded younger members about the importance of the group remaining amateur to fulfill its mission. Cook’s greatest asset was his ability to inspire and move the group forward with the strength of this personality, keeping them focused on their original goals. However, by 1919, most of the original group who set those goals were no longer participants, most having moved more deeply into producing their own individual work and many having physically moved away from the Village.In those first two years, O'Neill had six one-act plays presented: Before Breakfast, Fog, The Sniper, Ile, The Long Voyage Home, and The Rope. Glaspell had four plays produced: Trifles, The People, Close the Book, and Woman's Honor. Edna St. Vincent Millay
Edna St. Vincent Millay
Edna St. Vincent Millay was an American lyrical poet, playwright and feminist. She received the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, and was known for her activism and her many love affairs. She used the pseudonym Nancy Boyd for her prose work...
, fresh from Vassar and with early notoriety for her poetry, auditioned as an actress for the company and was cast. A few years later, her role would change to promising young playwright after her anti-war allegory, Aria da Capo, was produced. The Provincetown's first full-length play was given in April 1918: The Athenian Women by George Cram Cook. In the audience on opening night was political activist Emma Goldman, whose niece and nephew-in-law were involved in the group. Goldman brought with her that evening her friend and colleague in political activities, Mary Eleanor Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald eventually became the business manager of the Provincetown Players and was one of the company's few paid employees, remaining at the helm of the different permutations of the company that lasted until 1929.
Building
At the end of the Provincetown's second New York season, subscriptions were up to 635 and the company felt they needed a larger space to operate in. Just three doors down on MacDougal Street, owned by their same landlord, was a former stable that had recently been used as a bottling plant. The Players rented it for $400 a month, putting a scenery shop and dressing rooms in the basement and offices upstairs. Benches that could seat up to 200 were installed facing a "real" stage. To remind themselves that the space was once a stable, a hitching post was left hanging from one of the walls, with the inscription painted above it: "Here Pegasus Was Hitched." A plaster dome cyclorama, a pet project of Cook's and fashioned after those used by European art theatres of the time, was installed in 1920 for their production of O'Neill's The Emperor JonesThe Emperor Jones
The Emperor Jones is a 1920 play by American dramatist Eugene O'Neill which tells the tale of Brutus Jones, an African-American man who kills a man, goes to prison, escapes to a Caribbean island, and sets himself up as emperor...
. This is the theatre at 133 Macdougal Street, though many times since refurbished, that is known as the Provincetown Playhouse
Provincetown Playhouse
The Provincetown Playhouse is a theater in Manhattan's Greenwich Village. It is named for the Provincetown Players, who converted the former bottling plant into a theater in 1918. Much of the original building was torn down in 2009 as New York University School of Law planned a new building on the...
. In the fall of 2008, against the wishes of theater historians and preservationists, New York University (who owns the building) demolished the Playhouse to create a new foundation so that offices could be expanded for their Law School, but have vowed to replace it with a new theatre in the same air space (see more below).
The first performance in the new theatre took place on November 22, 1918, just days after the end of World War I was declared, with a bill of one-act plays by Millay, O'Neill, and Florence Kiper Frank. The second bill of the season featured O'Neill's “mood” play, the lyrical The Moon of the Carribees, another of his sea plays. When the tensions between the young and the old guard of the company reached an all-time high, Cook decided to take a year sabbatical as their leader, abdicating to James Light, a young actor and director whose strong personality clashed at times with Cook’s. Cook left with the assurance that Ida Rauh, the company’s most revered actress, was co-director with Light and would look after his priorities. However, after her direction of O’Neill’s The Dreamy Kid, in which she made the company only the second to cast all black actors in a play produced by a “white” theatre company, she also abdicated to Light. The most significant play that season was Millay's Aria da Capo, called by New York Times critic Alexander Woollcott
Alexander Woollcott
Alexander Humphreys Woollcott was an American critic and commentator for The New Yorker magazine and a member of the Algonquin Round Table....
“the most beautiful and most interesting play in the English language now to be seen in New York.”
Cook returned to the helm for the season of 1920-21, which quickly became significant for the production of O'Neill's The Emperor Jones, the first of the Provincetown plays to be a bona fide "hit," and, eventually, the production was moved uptown to Broadway to the Princess Theatre. Before the move, however, the Provincetown was flooded with ticket requests, bringing the number of subscribers to over 1600. The mostly amateur company with the highest of ideals for American playwrights was now challenged with the perils of success. New plays soon were often selected for their potential to transfer to professional theatres and this caused ideological clashes among the company. These differences of opinion deepened and, following a contentious rehearsal period of O’Neill’s The Hairy Ape during the 1921-1922 season, in which Cook was relieved of his duties as director by O’Neill, Cook realized that he had no playwrights of the quality of O’Neill or Glaspell to develop that justified the Players to continue in their mission. After their sixth New York season in 1922, a one-year period of inactivity was called for by the members. Before the season was over, Cook and Glaspell left to live in Greece where, less than two years later, Cook died and was buried in Delphi.
By 1922, under "Jig" Cook's leadership, the Provincetown Players could boast of having produced ninety-three new American plays by forty-seven American playwrights; these included plays by Wilbur Daniel Steele, Edna Ferber, Bosworth Crocker, Djuna Barnes, Mike Gold, Harry Kemp, James Oppenheim, Maxwell Bodenheim, Rita Wellman, Lawrence Langner, Theodore Dreiser, and Evelyn Scott. After their presentation of O'Neill's expressionistic The Emperor Jones, featuring a critically praised performance by African-American actor Charles Gilpin
Charles Sidney Gilpin
Charles Sidney Gilpin became one of the most highly regarded actors of the 1920s. He played in critical debuts in New York: in the 1919 premier of John Drinkwater’s Abraham Lincoln and played the lead role of Brutus Jones in the 1920 premier of Eugene O'Neill's The Emperor Jones, also touring...
, James Weldon Johnson
James Weldon Johnson
James Weldon Johnson was an American author, politician, diplomat, critic, journalist, poet, anthologist, educator, lawyer, songwriter, and early civil rights activist. Johnson is remembered best for his leadership within the NAACP, as well as for his writing, which includes novels, poems, and...
claimed that the Provincetown "was the initial and greatest force in opening up the way for the Negro on the dramatic stage." A remarkable feature of the group was the unusually large quantity and quality of participation of women, both in artistic and management functions. In their six short years in New York, the Players had presented the first truly experimental American plays, including expressionistic, futuristic, and surrealistic plays, plays with highly political themes, poetic and verse plays, allegory plays, and plays that showed the plight of lower and middle class Americans and immigrants. The group had also launched the careers of O’Neill and Glaspell, both of whom would win numerous awards, including Pulitzer Prizes for Drama. Glaspell presented subtle yet powerfully complex women as lead characters and, without a thumping-pulpit approach, became important as a feminist playwright who bridged the Victorian era with the modern. In short, the Provincetown Players launched American playwriting into the modern era and made a pathway for serious American playwrights to begin writing artistic plays about serious issues.
Company
The company had withstood controversy and fought objections to the ideas they felt were most important. Now as they faced the future without Cook, an obvious reorganization was deemed necessary and, with it, new leadership. A "triumvirate" leadership was formed between O'Neill, stage designer Robert Edmond JonesRobert Edmond Jones
Robert Edmond Jones was an American scenic, lighting, and costume designer. He is credited with incorporating the new stagecraft into the American drama. His designs sought to integrate the scenic elements into the storytelling instead of having them stand separate and indifferent from the play’s...
, and author and critic Kenneth Macgowan
Kenneth Macgowan
Kenneth Macgowan was an American film producer. He won an Academy Award for Best Color Short Film for La Cucaracha , the first live-action short film made in the three-color Technicolor process....
, with Macgowan named as the director of the Playhouse. After months of bitter fighting about the name of this new organization, particularly with Glaspell, it was decided to drop the title "The Provincetown Players" and the company was called "The Experimental Theatre, Inc." The playhouse, however, was still known as the Provincetown. This new group’s first season began in January 1924 with the first American production of The Spook Sonata by August Strindberg
August Strindberg
Johan August Strindberg was a Swedish playwright, novelist, poet, essayist and painter. A prolific writer who often drew directly on his personal experience, Strindberg's career spanned four decades, during which time he wrote over 60 plays and more than 30 works of fiction, autobiography,...
, followed by a very successful revival of Anna Cora Mowatt
Anna Cora Mowatt
Anna Cora Mowatt Ritchie was an author, playwright, public reader, and actress.- Childhood :Anna Cora Ogden was born in Bordeaux, France, March 5, 1819. She was the tenth of fourteen children. Her father was Samuel Gouveneur Ogden , an American merchant...
's 1850 comedy Fashion. During the next season (1924–25), three of the group's larger plays, including O'Neill's tragedy Desire Under the Elms, were staged at the Greenwich Village Theatre, which was on the west side of Seventh Avenue and Christopher Street at Sheridan Square (now the site of a pharmacy and a bank). One of the company's significant plays was All God’s Chillun’ Got Wings, featuring white actress Mary Blair kissing the hand of her African-American husband, played by Paul Robeson
Paul Robeson
Paul Leroy Robeson was an American concert singer , recording artist, actor, athlete, scholar who was an advocate for the Civil Rights Movement in the first half of the twentieth century...
. The play’s opening was reported on the front page of many national newspapers, particularly when New York City’s mayor John Francis Hylan did not allow the children actors originally scheduled for the first scene to perform. On opening night the Playhouse was surrounded by police because of threats. The experimental nature of these productions during this period allowed Jones the freedom to try many elements of "new stagecraft," with Jones even directing a production of Gilbert and Sullivan's comic opera Patience in December 1924. Keeping two theatres running, however, proved to be too much of a challenge, so after only two years at the helm, the triumvirate left to focus their efforts on experimentation at the Greenwich Village Theatre alone and, eventually, to focus on their own separate work.
This led to James Light being named the new director of a revitalized group of players, still called the Experimental Theatre Company, who continued to work in the Provincetown Playhouse. Though they staged fifteen productions over the next four seasons, including Paul Green's Pulitzer Prize-winning folk drama, In Abraham's Bosom, operas by Gluck and Mozart, and presented new actors like the young Bette Davis, no great reason remained to keep the company at the Provincetown Playhouse. In an effort to start anew, money was raised so that, by the early fall of 1929, the group was about to relocate to the Garrick Theatre uptown. Unfortunately, the stock market crash on October 29 of that year caused their financial collapse and the company ceased to exist.
Contemporary History
Since that time, the Provincetown PlayhouseProvincetown Playhouse
The Provincetown Playhouse is a theater in Manhattan's Greenwich Village. It is named for the Provincetown Players, who converted the former bottling plant into a theater in 1918. Much of the original building was torn down in 2009 as New York University School of Law planned a new building on the...
has been the home of many independently produced plays. It was also the home base for the Community Theatre division of the Federal Theatre Project (1936–1939), used as a training center to send directors, actors, teachers and designers out to the five boroughs of New York City to create theatre projects. The lease was held for many years by a group that specialized in presenting Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas and who rented the playhouse to other theatre companies and productions. In 1960, the Provincetown was used to produce the long-running double bill of Samuel Beckett
Samuel Beckett
Samuel Barclay Beckett was an Irish avant-garde novelist, playwright, theatre director, and poet. He wrote both in English and French. His work offers a bleak, tragicomic outlook on human nature, often coupled with black comedy and gallows humour.Beckett is widely regarded as among the most...
's Krapp's Last Tape and Edward Albee
Edward Albee
Edward Franklin Albee III is an American playwright who is best known for The Zoo Story , The Sandbox , Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? , and a rewrite of the screenplay for the unsuccessful musical version of Capote's Breakfast at Tiffany's . His works are considered well-crafted, often...
's The Zoo Story, Albee's first play produced in New York City. Marty Martin's monologue Gertrude Stein Gertrude Stein, performed by Pat Carroll, was transferred to the Provincetown for an extended run in October 1979. The Playhouse continued to be used to premiere plays by playwrights that included Lanford Wilson
Lanford Wilson
Lanford Wilson was an American playwright who helped to advance the Off-Off-Broadway theater movement. He received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1980, was elected in 2001 to the Theater Hall of Fame, and in 2004 was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters...
, David Mamet
David Mamet
David Alan Mamet is an American playwright, essayist, screenwriter and film director.Best known as a playwright, Mamet won a Pulitzer Prize and received a Tony nomination for Glengarry Glen Ross . He also received a Tony nomination for Speed-the-Plow . As a screenwriter, he received Oscar...
and John Guare
John Guare
John Guare is an American playwright. He is best known as the author of The House of Blue Leaves, Six Degrees of Separation, and Landscape of the Body...
. The playhouse’s longest running play was the five-year run of Vampire Lesbians of Sodom (1985–1990) by Charles Busch
Charles Busch
Charles Louis Busch is an American actor, screenwriter, playwright and female impersonator, known for his appearances on stage in his own camp style plays and in film and television. He wrote The Tale of the Allergist's Wife, which was a success on Broadway.-Early life:Busch was born in 1954 and...
, which was also its last major production before being shut down for many years, needing building code upgrades. In 1998, a major refurbishment was given by New York University, who has owned the theatre since the early 1980s; unfortunately, the domed cyclorama that had survived for nearly 80 years was destroyed by accident in the construction. This historic Playhouse was being used by New York University's Educational Theatre department, who yearly hosts an award-winning reading series of new plays for young audiences by significant American playwrights. The theatre was also used regularly by a group committed to the producing of the O’Neill canon. Unfortunately, in 2008, NYU decided that the need to strengthen the 1840 brownstone's foundation so they could add floors above for offices necessitated them to tear the original structure down, though they preserved the perimeter walls of the original theatre as part of the refurbishment. They have announced that a new playhouse will be constructed in the same site and will be ready for use in 2010. NYU promises that the spirit in which the Provincetown Playhouse was originally created will continue as a driving force to enable future dramatists, theatre practitioners and teachers to flourish and grow.
The Players' Significance
Many theatre historians and critics have verified the importance of the Provincetown Players. Kenneth Macgowan wrote in the foreword of The Provincetown, the first published history of the Players, that the book "records the only fully creative moment in that movement of men and women below and beyond Broadway which has made over our professional theatre." Cordell and Matson write in their introduction to The Off-Broadway Theatre: Seven Plays that "No other organization, including the Washington Square Players, the Group Theatre, and the University PlayersUniversity Players
The University Players was primarily a summer stock theater company located in West Falmouth, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, from 1928 to 1932. It was formed in 1928 by eighteen college undergraduates...
, has had a more permanent influence on the new American theatre than the Provincetown Playhouse, by way of the plays and talented workers it funneled into the commercial theatre." Adele Heller in "The New Theatre," part of 1915: The Cultural Moment, writes that "The Provincetown Players created one of the most valuable of the early experimental theatres that helped to establish American drama as a serious art form. The plays its members wrote reflected the ferment of the times and gave rise to a theatre with a distinctly American voice." It’s in this "hallowed ground in the region of Washington Square," in the words of theatre critic William Archer
William Archer
William Archer may refer to:* William S. Archer , U.S. Senator and Representative from Virginia* William Archer Irish naturalist and microscopist especially interested in Protozoa and Desmids...
, "that we must look for the real birthplace of the American drama."
Further reading
- Sarlos, Robert Karoly. Jig Cook and the Provincetown Players, Theatre in Ferment. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1982.
- Black, Cheryl. The Women of Provincetown, 1915-1922. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama Press, 2002.
- Egan, Leona Rust. Provincetown As a Stage: Provincetown, The Provincetown Players, and the Discovery of Eugene O’Neill. Orleans: Parnassus Imprints, 1994.
- Murphy, Brenda. The Provincetown Players and the Culture of Modernity. New York: Cambridge U Press, 2005.
- Kennedy, Jeffery. The Artistic Life of the Provincetown Playhouse, 1918–1922, Vols. 1 and 2. Diss. New York University, 2007. Ann Arbor: UMI, 2007.
- Deutsch, Helen, and Stella Hanau. The Provincetown: A Story of the Theatre. New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1931.
- Ben-Zvi, Linda. Susan Glaspell, Her Life and Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
- Ozieblo, Barbara. Susan Glaspell, a Critical Biography. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
- Gelb, Arthur and Barbara. O’Neill. New York: Harper and Row, 1987.
- Gelb, Arthur and Barbara. O’Neill, Life with Monte Cristo. New York: Applause Books, 2000.
- Sheaffer, Louis. O’Neill, Son and Playwright, Volume I. 1968. New York: Copper Square Press, 2002.
- Sheaffer, Louis. O’Neill, Son and Artist, Volume II. 1973. New York: Copper Square Press, 2002.
- Rudnick, Lois and Adele Heller, eds. 1915, the Cultural Moment. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U Press, 1991.
- Ozieblo, Barbara, ed. The Provincetown Players, A Choice of the Shorter Works. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.
External links
- Provincetown Playhouse.com site, which includes information on the Playhouse, the plays produced there, and current news.
- Vorse, M.H. Time and the Town: A Provincetown Chronicle. Reprinted 1990. Cape Cod Pilgrim Memorial Association, Provincetown, Massachusetts. 372 p.
- The NYU plan for the buildings as distributed in electronic form
- New York Times article on NYU's plans from 4/30/08
- An article in The Villager about NYU's plans