Problem-based learning
Encyclopedia
Problem-based learning is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject in the context of complex, multifaceted, and realistic problems (not to be confused with project-based learning
Project-based learning
Project-based learning, or PBL, is the use of in-depth and rigorous classroom projects to facilitate learning and assess student competence . Students use technology and inquiry to respond to a complex issue, problem or challenge...

). The goals of PBL are to help the students develop flexible knowledge, effective problem solving skills, self-directed learning, effective collaboration skills and intrinsic motivation. Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and how and where to access new information that may lead to resolution of the problem. The role of the instructor (known as the tutor in PBL) is that of facilitator of learning who provides appropriate scaffolding
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a temporary structure used to support people and material in the construction or repair of buildings and other large structures. It is usually a modular system of metal pipes or tubes, although it can be from other materials...

 and support of the process, modelling of the process, and monitoring the learning. The tutor must build students confidence to take on the problem, encourage the student, while also stretching their understanding.

PBL was pioneered in the medical school program at McMaster University
McMaster University
McMaster University is a public research university whose main campus is located in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The main campus is located on of land in the residential neighbourhood of Westdale, adjacent to Hamilton's Royal Botanical Gardens...

 in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in the late 1960's by Howard Barrows and his colleagues. The PBL curriculum was developed in order to stimulate the learners, assist the learners in seeing the relevance of learning to future roles, maintain a higher level of motivation towards learning, and to show the learners the importance of responsible, professional attitudes (Barrows, 1996).
Problem-Based Learning subsequently has been adopted by other medical school programs (Barrows, 1996), adapted for undergraduate instruction (Boud and Feletti, 1997; Duch et al., 2001; Amador et al., 2006) as well as elementary and high school (Barrows, 1996; Gasser, 2011). The use of PBL has expanded from its initial introduction into medical school programs to include education in the areas of other health sciences, math, law, education, economics, business, social studies, and engineering (Barrows 1996; Gasser, 2011). The use of PBL, like other student-centered pedagogies, has been motivated by recognition of the failures of traditional instruction (Wingspread, 1994; Boyer, 1998) and the emergence of deeper understandings of how people learn (National Research Council, 2000). Unlike traditional instruction, PBL actively engages the student in constructing knowledge. PBL includes problems that can be solved in many different ways and have more than one solution. A good problem is authentic, meets students level of prior knowledge, engages students in discussion, and is interesting.
The Six core characteristics of problem based learning:

-consists of student-centred learning
Student-centred learning
Student-centred learning is an approach to education focusing on the needs of the students, rather than those of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and administrators...



-learning occurs in small groups

-teachers act as facilitators or guides (referred to as tutors)

-a problem forms the basis for organized focus and stimulus for learning

-problems stimulate the development and use of problem solving skills

-new knowledge is obtained through means of self-directed learning
In PBL, students are encouraged to take responsibility for their group and organize and direct the learning process with support from a tutor or instructor. Advocates of PBL claim it can be used to enhance content knowledge while simultaneously fostering the development of communication, problem-solving, critical thinking, collaboration, and self-directed learning skills.

PBL may position students in a simulated real world working and professional context which involves policy, process, and ethical problems that will need to be understood and resolved to some outcome. By working through a combination of learning strategies to discover the nature of a problem, understanding the constraints and options to its resolution, defining the input variables, and understanding the viewpoints involved, students learn to negotiate the complex sociological nature of the problem and how competing resolutions may inform decision-making.
Schmidt (1983) describes the process of Problem-based learning as being seven steps:

- clarifying and agreeing on terms and concepts that are unclear

- define the problem and review terms which need more depth or explanation

- analyze, brainstorm and create potential hypothesis

- discuss, evaluate and organize possible explanations into potential hypothesis

- generate and prioritize learning objectives, divide research workload

- private study time to research objectives

- during next tutorial report back gained information, create an explanation and synthesize new information in relation to the problem

Evidence supporting problem-based learning

Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn cite several studies supporting the success of the constructivist problem-based and inquiry learning methods. For example, they describe a project called GenScope, an inquiry-based
Inquiry-based learning
Inquiry-based learning or inquiry-based science describes a range of philosophical, curricular and pedagogical approaches to teaching....

 science software application. Students using the GenScope software showed significant gains over the control groups, with the largest gains shown in students from basic courses.

Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of inquiry-based science for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes standardized tests. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the achievement gap for African-American students.

A systematic review of the effects of problem-based learning in medical school on the performance of doctors after graduation showed clear positive effects on physician competence. This effect was especially strong for social and cognitive competencies such as coping with uncertainty and communication skills.

Cotič and Zuljan (2009) identified a need for improvement in Slovene students problem solving abilities. They conducted a study that aimed to answer if students who learn with PBL are better at solving problems and if their attitudes improved towards mathematics through engagement in the PBL model. Their study found that students who were exposed to PBL were better at solving more difficult problems but there was no significant difference in student attitude towards mathematics.

Examples of applying Problem-Based Learning pedagogy to curriculum

In Malaysia, an attempt is being made to introduce a hybrid of problem-based learning in secondary mathematics called PBL4C, which stands for problem-based learning the four core areas in the mathematics education framework. These core areas are content, thinking processes, skills, & values, with the aim of nurturing wise citizens who are responsible in decision-making for sustainable and responsible development. This hybrid first sprouted in SEAMEO RECSAM in 2008 and a paper was presented at the EARCOME5 conference in 2010. At tertiary level, many Malaysian universities are going for PBL purposely to improve the quality of the graduates produced. In collaboration with Aalborg University of Denmark, PBL was introduced at University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM). Since then the PBL was widely used among engineering and as well as humanities lecturers at UTHM (Berhannudin, 2007).

Several medical schools have incorporated problem-based learning into their curricula, using real patient cases to teach students how to think like a clinician. More than eighty percent of medical schools in the United States now have some form of problem-based learning in their programs. Research of 10 years of data from the University of Missouri Medical School PBL curriculum supports PBL (Koh et al, 2008).

Maastricht University offers its whole program in PBL format only, as does the University of Limerick
University of Limerick
The University of Limerick is a university in Ireland near the city of Limerick on the island's west coast. It was established in 1972 as the National Institute for Higher Education, Limerick and became a university by statute in 1989 in accordance with the University of Limerick Act 1989...

 Graduate entry medical school in Ireland.

In 2004, the Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine founded a branch campus in Bradenton, Florida, utilizing an entirely PBL format. From 2006-2010, this campus led the nation in COMLEX scores.

In 2002, Gadjah Mada University
Gadjah Mada University
The Gadjah Mada University is the largest and the oldest national university in Indonesia . founded on December 19, 1949; although the first lecture was given on 13 March 1946. The name was taken from the name of Majapahit's Prime Minister, Gajah Mada.UGM is located in Yogyakarta, Daerah Istimewa...

 of Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...

 began offering an International Medicine program based on problem-based learning.

In 2008, Parramatta Marist High School a Secondary Catholic School in Australia employed the methods of PBL in their teaching for Year 9 and 10 boys. The learning system was a great success and since has been expanded to lower grades to challenge students to think outside of the box and relate content drive courses to problems in the real world.

Constructivism and PBL

PBL follows a constructivist perspective in learning as the role of the instructor is to guide and challenge the learning process rather than strictly providing knowledge (Dolmans et al, 2005; Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). From this perspective, feedback and reflection on the learning process and group dynamics are essential components of PBL. Students are considered to be active agents who engage in social knowledge construction. PBL assists in processes of creating meaning and building personal interpretations of the world based on experiences and interactions. . PBL assists to guide the student from theory to practice during their journey through solving the problem (Edens, 2000).

Problem-based learning and cognitive load

Sweller and others have published a series of studies over the past twenty years that is relevant to problem-based learning but concerning cognitive load
Cognitive load
The term cognitive load is used in cognitive psychology to illustrate the load related to the executive control of working memory . Theories contend that during complex learning activities the amount of information and interactions that must be processed simultaneously can either under-load, or...

 and what they describe as the guidance-fading effect (Sweller, 2006). Sweller, et al. conducted several classroom-based studies with students studying algebra problems (Sweller, 1988). These studies have shown that active problem solving early in the learning process, is a less effective instructional strategy than studying worked examples
Worked-example effect
The worked-example effect is a learning effect predicted by cognitive load theory . According to Sweller: "The worked example effect is the best known and most widely studied of the cognitive load effects"The worked-example effect is a learning effect predicted by cognitive load theory (Sweller,...

 (Sweller and Cooper, 1985; Cooper and Sweller, 1987). Certainly active problem solving is useful as learners become more competent, and better able to deal with their working memory limitations. But early in the learning process, learners may find it difficult to process a large amount of information in a short amount of time. Thus the rigors of active problem solving may become an issue for novices. Once learners gain expertise the scaffolding inherent in problem-based learning helps learners avoid these issues. These studies have however been conducted largely based on individual problem solving of well-defined problems.

Sweller (1988) proposed cognitive load
Cognitive load
The term cognitive load is used in cognitive psychology to illustrate the load related to the executive control of working memory . Theories contend that during complex learning activities the amount of information and interactions that must be processed simultaneously can either under-load, or...

 theory to explain how novices react to problem solving during the early stages of learning. Sweller, et al. suggests a worked example early, and then a gradual introduction of problems to be solved. They propose other forms of learning early in the learning process (worked example, goal free problems, etc.); to later be replaced by completions problems, with the eventual goal of solving problems on their own (Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). This problem based learning becomes very useful later in the learning process.

Many forms of scaffolding
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a temporary structure used to support people and material in the construction or repair of buildings and other large structures. It is usually a modular system of metal pipes or tubes, although it can be from other materials...

 have been implemented in problem based learning to reduce the cognitive load of learners. These are most useful to fade guidance during problem solving. As an example, consider the fading effect helps learners to slowly transit from studying examples to solving problems. In this case backwards fading was found to be quite effective and assisting in decreasing the cognitive load on learners (Hmelo-Silver et al, 2004).

Evaluation of the effects of PBL learning in comparison to traditional instructional learning have proved to be a challenge. Various factors can influence the implementation of PBL: extent of PBL incorporation into curriculum, group dynamics, nature of problems used, facilitator influence on group, and the motivation of the learners. There are also various outcomes of PBL that can be measured including knowledge acquisition and clinical competence (Schmidt & Moust, 2000; Neville, 2009). Very few studies done to date consider all the variables that can affect PBL (Neville, 2009).

Cognitive effects of problem-based learning

The acquisition and structuring of knowledge in PBL is thought to work through the following cognitive
Cognition
In science, cognition refers to mental processes. These processes include attention, remembering, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions. Cognition is studied in various disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science...

 effects (Schmidt, 1993):
  • initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion
  • elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information
  • restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network
  • social knowledge construction
  • learning in context
  • stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem


Other outcomes of problem-based learning

One of the aims of PBL is the development of self-directed learning (SDL) skills. In Loyens, Magda & Rikers' discussion (2008), SDL is defined as “a process in which individuals take the initiative…in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material resources, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.” By being invited into the learning process, students are also invited to take responsibility for their learning, which leads to and increase in self-directed learning skills.
In Severiens and Schmidt’s study of 305 first year college students, they found that PBL and its focus on SDL led to motivation for students to maintain study pace, led to social and academic integration, encouraged development of cognitive skills, and fostered more study progress then students in a conventional learning setting (2009). PBL encourages learners to take a place in the academic world through inquiring and discovery that is central to problem-based learning.

PBL is also argued as a learning method that can promote the development of critical thinking skills. In PBL learning, students learn how to analyze a problem, identify relevant facts and generate hypotheses, identify necessary information/knowledge for solving the problem and make reasonable judgments about solving the problem.

Employers have appreciated the positive attributes of communication, teamwork, respect and collaboration that PBL experienced students have developed. These skills provide for better future skills preparation in the ever-changing information explosion. PBL curriculum includes building these attributes through knowledge building, written and interpersonal interactions and through the experience of the problem solving process (Major & Palmer, 2001; Vardi & Ciccarelli, 2008).

External links


See also

  • Discovery learning
    Discovery learning
    Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction and is considered a constructivist based approach to education. It is supported by the work of learning theorists and psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Seymour Papert...

  • project-based learning
    Project-based learning
    Project-based learning, or PBL, is the use of in-depth and rigorous classroom projects to facilitate learning and assess student competence . Students use technology and inquiry to respond to a complex issue, problem or challenge...

  • Knowledge Building
    Knowledge building
    The Knowledge Building theory was created and developed by Carl Bereiter and Marlene Scardamalia for describing what a community of learners needs to accomplish in order to create knowledge...

  • Educational psychology
    Educational psychology
    Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing...

  • Inquiry-based learning
    Inquiry-based learning
    Inquiry-based learning or inquiry-based science describes a range of philosophical, curricular and pedagogical approaches to teaching....

  • Learning by teaching
    Learning by teaching
    In professional education, learning by teaching designates currently the method by Jean-Pol Martin that allows pupils and students to prepare and to teach lessons, or parts of lessons...

     (LdL)
  • Active learning
    Active learning
    Active learning is an umbrella term that refers to several models of instruction that focus the responsibility of learning, on learners. Bonwell and Eison popularized this approach to instruction . This "buzz word" of the 1980s became their 1990s report to the Association for the Study of Higher...

  • McMaster University
    McMaster University
    McMaster University is a public research university whose main campus is located in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The main campus is located on of land in the residential neighbourhood of Westdale, adjacent to Hamilton's Royal Botanical Gardens...

  • Collaborative learning
    Collaborative learning
    Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together. Unlike individual learning, people engaged in collaborative learning capitalize on one another’s resources and skills...

  • Minnesota State University, Mankato Masters Degree in Experiential Education
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