Primatology
Encyclopedia
Primatology is the scientific study of primate
s. It is a diverse discipline
and researchers can be found in academic departments of anatomy, anthropology
, biology, medicine, psychology, veterinary sciences and zoology
, as well as in animal sanctuaries, biomedical research facilities, museums and zoos. Primatologists study both living and extinct primates in their natural habitats and in laboratories by conducting field studies and experiments in order to understand aspects of their evolution
and behaviour.
There are two main disciplines within the field of primatology, Western primatology and Japanese primatology. These two divergent disciplines stem from their unique cultural backgrounds and philosophies that went into their founding. Although, fundamentally, both Western and Japanese primatology share many of the same principles, the areas of their focus in primate research and their methods of obtaining data differ widely.
There are three methodological approaches in primatology: field study, the more realistic approach, laboratory study, the more controlled approach, and semi-free ranging, where primate habitat and wild social structure is replicated in a captive setting.
Field is done in natural environments, in which scientific observers watch primates in their natural habitat.
Laboratory study is done in controlled lab settings. In lab settings, scientists are able to perform controlled experimentation on the learning capabilities and behavioral patterns of the animals.
In semi-free ranging studies, scientists are able to watch how primates would act in the wild but have continual access to them, the ability to do lifetime studies, and the ability to control their environments. Such facilities include the Living Links Center at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center
in Georgia and the Elgin Center
at Lion Country Safari
in Florida.
All types of primate study in the Western methodology are meant to be very neutral. Although there are certain Western primatologists who do more subjective research, the emphasis in this discipline is on the objective.
Early primatology tended to focus on individual researchers and their exploits. Stories of researchers such as Dian Fossey
and Jane Goodall
are examples of this. Long-term sites of research tend to be best associated with their founders, and this leads to some tension between younger primatologists and the veterans in the field.
. It is mainly credited to Kinji Imanishi
and Junichiro Itani
. Imanishi was an animal ecologist who began studying wild horses before focusing more on primate ecology. He helped found the Primate Research Group in 1950. Junichiro was a renowned anthropologist and a professor at Kyoto University
. He is a co-founder of the Primate Research Institute
and the Centre for African Area Studies.
and anthropology are of primary interest to them. The Japanese theory believes that studying primates will give us insight into the duality of human nature: individual self vs. social self.
The traditional and cultural aspects of Japanese science lend themselves to an “older sibling” mentality. It is believed that animals should be treated with respect, but also a firm authority. This is not to say that the Japanese study of primatology is cruel – far from it – just that it does not feel that their subjects should be given reverential treatment.
One particular Japanese primatologist, Kawai Masao
, introduced the concept of kyokan
. This was the theory
that the only way to attain reliable scientific knowledge was to attain a mutual relation, personal attachment and shared life with the animal subjects. Though Kawai is the only Japanese primatologist associated with the use of this term, the underlying principle is part of the foundation of Japanese primate research.
science. It is believed that the best data comes through identification with your subject. Neutrality is eschewed in favour of a more casual atmosphere, where researcher and subject can mingle more freely. Domestication of nature is not only desirable, but necessary for study.
Japanese primatologists are renowned for their ability to recognise animals by sight, and indeed most primates in a research group are usually named and numbered. Comprehensive data on every single subject in a group is uniquely Japanese trait of primate research. Each member of the primate community has a part to play, and the Japanese researchers are interested in this complex interaction.
For Japanese researchers in primatology, the findings of the team are emphasised over the individual. The study of primates is a group effort, and the group will get the credit for it. A team of researchers may observe a group of primates for several years in order to gather very detailed demographic and social histories.
attempts to understand the actions of all animal species within the context of advantageous and disadvantageous behaviors, primatology takes an exclusive look at the order Primates, which includes Homo sapiens. The interface between primatology and sociobiology examines in detail the evolution of primate behavioral processes, and what studying our closest living primate relatives can tell about our own minds. As the American anthropologist Earnest Albert Hooton used to say: "Primas sum: primatum nil a me alienum puto" ("I am a primate; nothing about primates is outside of my bailiwick"). The meeting point of these two disciplines has become a nexus of discussion on key issues concerning the evolution of sociality, the development and purpose of language and deceit, and the development and propagation of culture.
Additionally, this interface is of particular interest to the science watchers in science and technology studies, who examine the social conditions which incite, mould, and eventually react to scientific discoveries and knowledge. The STS approach to primatology and sociobiology stretches beyond studying the apes, into the realm of observing the people studying the apes.
, and before molecular biology
, the father of modern taxonomy, Carolus Linnaeus
, organized natural objects into kinds, that we now know reflect their evolutionary relatedness. He sorted these kinds by morphology
, the shape of the object. Animals such as monkeys, chimpanzees and orangutans resemble humans closely, so Linnaeus placed Homo sapiens together with other similar-looking organisms into the taxonomic order Primates. Modern molecular biology reinforced humanity’s place within the Primate order. Humans and simians share the vast majority of their DNA
, with chimpanzees sharing between 97-99% genetic identity with humans.
is observed in many animal species, the grooming activities undertaken by primates are not strictly for the elimination of parasites. In primates, grooming is a social activity that strengthens relationships. The amount of grooming taking place between members of a troop is a potent indicator of alliance formation or troop solidarity. Robin Dunbar
suggests a link between primate grooming and the development of human language. The size of the neocortex
in a primate’s brain correlates directly to the number of individuals it can keep track of socially, be it a troop of chimps or a tribe of humans.
This number is referred to as the monkeysphere. If a population exceeds the size outlined by its cognitive limitations, the group undergoes a schism. Set into an evolutionary context, the Dunbar number shows a drive for the development of a method of bonding that is less labor intensive than grooming: language. As the monkeysphere grows, the amount of time that would need to be spent grooming troopmates soon becomes unmanageable. Furthermore, it is only possible to bond with one troopmate at a time while grooming. The evolution of vocal communication solves both the time constraint and the one-on-one problem, but at a price.
Language allows for bonding with multiple people at the same time at a distance, but the bonding produced by language is less intense. This view of language evolution covers the general biological trends needed for language development, but it takes another hypothesis to uncover the evolution of the cognitive processes necessary for language.
’s concept of innate language addresses the existence of universal grammar
, which suggests a special kind of “device” all humans are born with whose sole purpose is language. Fodor
’s modular mind hypothesis expands on this concept, suggesting the existence of preprogrammed modules for dealing with many, or all aspects of cognition. Although these modules do not need to be physically distinct, they must be functionally distinct. Orangutans are currently being taught language at the Smithsonian National Zoo using a computer system developed by primatologist Dr. Francine Neago
in conjunction with IBM
.
The massive modularity theory thesis posits that there is a huge number of tremendously interlinked but specialized modules running programs called Darwinian algorithms, or DA. DA can be selected for just as a gene can, eventually improving cognition. The contrary theory, of generalist mind, suggests that the brain is just a big computer that runs one program, the mind. If the mind is a general computer, for instance, the ability to use reasoning should be identical regardless of the context. This is not what is observed. When faced with abstract numbers and letters with no “real world” significance, respondents of the Wason card test
generally do very poorly. However, when exposed to a test with an identical rule set but socially relevant content, respondents score markedly higher. The difference is especially pronounced when the content is about reward and payment. This test strongly suggests that human logic is based on a module originally developed in a social environment to root out cheaters, and that either the module is at a huge disadvantage where abstract thinking is involved, or that other less effective modules are used when faced with abstract logic.
Further evidence supporting the modular mind has steadily emerged with some startling revelations concerning primates. A very recent study indicated that human babies and grown monkeys approach and process numbers in a similar fashion, suggesting an evolved set of DA for mathematics (Jordan). The conceptualization of both human infants and primate adults is cross-sensory, meaning that they can add 15 red dots to 20 beeps and approximate the answer to be 35 grey squares. As more evidence of basic cognitive modules
are uncovered, they will undoubtedly form a more solid foundation upon which the more complex behaviors can be understood.
In contradiction to this, neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp
has argued that the mind is not a computer nor is it massively modular. He states that no evidence of massive modularity or the brain as a digital computer has been gained through actual neuroscience, as opposed to psychological studies. He criticises psychologists who use the massive modularity thesis for not integrating neuroscience into their understanding.
, powerplays, deception, cuckoldry, and apology. In order to understand the staggeringly complex nature of primate interactions, we look to theory of mind
. Theory of mind asks whether or not an individual recognizes and can keep track of information asymmetry
amongst individuals in the group, and whether or not they can attribute folk psychological states
to their peers. If some primates can tell what others know and want and act accordingly, they can gain advantage and status.
Recently, chimpanzee theory of mind has been advanced by Felix Warneken of the Max Planck Institute. His studies have shown that chimpanzees can recognize whether a researcher desires a dropped object, and act accordingly by picking it up. Even more compelling is the observation that chimps will only act if the object is dropped in an accidental-looking manner: if the researcher drops the object in a way that appears intentional, the chimp will ignore the object.
In a related experiment, groups of chimps were given rope-pulling problems they could not solve individually. Warneken’s subjects rapidly figured out which individual in the group was the best rope puller and assigned it the bulk of the task. This research is highly indicative of the ability of chimps to detect the folk psychological state of “desire”, as well as the ability to recognize that other individuals are better at certain tasks than they are.
However primates do not always fare so well in situations requiring theory of mind. In one experiment pairs of chimpanzees who had been close grooming partners were offered two levers. Pressing one lever would bring them food and another would bring their grooming partner food. Pressing the lever to clearly give their grooming partner much-wanted food would not take away from how much food they themselves got. For some reason, the chimps were unwilling to depress the lever that would give their long-time chums food. It is plausible but unlikely that the chimps figured there was finite food and it would eventually decrease their own food reward. The experiments are open to such interpretations making it hard to establish anything for certain.
One phenomenon which would indicate a possible fragility of theory of mind in primates occurs when a baboon gets lost. Under such circumstances, the lost baboon generally makes "call barks" to announce that it is lost. Previous to the 1990s it was thought that these call barks would then be returned by the other baboons, similar to the case is in vervet monkeys. However when researchers studied this formally in the past few years they found something surprising: Only the baboons who were lost would ever give call barks. Even if an infant was wailing in agony just a few hundred meters away, its mother who would clearly recognise its voice and would be frantic about his safety (or alternatively run towards her infant depending on her own perceived safety), would often simply stare in his direction visibly agitated. If the anguishing baboon mother made any type of call at all, the infant would instantly recognise her and run to her position. This type of logic appears to be lost on the baboon, suggesting a serious gap in theory of mind of this otherwise seemingly very intelligent primate species. However, it is also possible that baboons do not return call barks for ecological reasons, for example because returning the call bark might call attention to the lost baboon, putting it at greater risk from predators.
Social critics of science, some operating from within the field, cry foul when reviewing the young disciplines of primatology and sociobiology. Claims are made that researchers form opinions on issues concerning human sociality prior to doing their studies, and then seek evidence that agrees with their worldview or otherwise furthers a sociopolitical agenda. In particular, the use of primatological studies to assert gender roles, and promote or subvert feminism has been a serious point of contention.
An example of this is Zuckerman’s 1932 study of captive hamadryas baboon
s, as critiqued in Sturm and Fedigan
's Changing Views on Primate Societies. Zuckerman observed male baboons kill each other off in great number in their captive environment. Whether intended or not, the study served to reinforce images of the male as the sole competitor in an often violent race to secure dominance
and access to a harem of females. Despite wildly unrealistic overcrowding and completely incorrect male to female ratio, Zuckerman's paper was viewed as good science at the time. These ideas were used to justifiy the status quo of human male dominance, and consequently, the studies were widely supported and assumed to be the basis of a primate-wide template for behavior, including that of humans. Incidentally, the hamadryas baboon females are among the most submissive and most gender-unequal of all primates, although primates and humans share a tremendous variation in troop structure (Hrdy 101, Stone).
A significant 2002 paper comparing primate/human cognition was retracted in August, 2010. Its lead author, Harvard University psychologist Marc Hauser, "is taking a year-long leave after a lengthy internal investigation found evidence of scientific misconduct in his laboratory." Videotaped control data supporting the authors' conclusion that cottontop tamarin
monkeys displayed pattern-learning behavior similar to human infants reportedly was unable to be located after a three-year investigation.
Primatologists
Primate research centers
Primate
A primate is a mammal of the order Primates , which contains prosimians and simians. Primates arose from ancestors that lived in the trees of tropical forests; many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging three-dimensional environment...
s. It is a diverse discipline
Academic discipline
An academic discipline, or field of study, is a branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined , and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to...
and researchers can be found in academic departments of anatomy, anthropology
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
, biology, medicine, psychology, veterinary sciences and zoology
Zoology
Zoology |zoölogy]]), is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct...
, as well as in animal sanctuaries, biomedical research facilities, museums and zoos. Primatologists study both living and extinct primates in their natural habitats and in laboratories by conducting field studies and experiments in order to understand aspects of their evolution
Evolution
Evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.Life on Earth...
and behaviour.
Sub-disciplines
As a science, primatology has many different sub-disciplines which vary in terms of theoretical and methodological approaches to the subject used in researching extant primates and their extinct ancestors.There are two main disciplines within the field of primatology, Western primatology and Japanese primatology. These two divergent disciplines stem from their unique cultural backgrounds and philosophies that went into their founding. Although, fundamentally, both Western and Japanese primatology share many of the same principles, the areas of their focus in primate research and their methods of obtaining data differ widely.
Origins
Western primatology stems primarily from colonial research into primate behavior, especially by American colonial scientists. Early primate study focused primarily in medical research, but some scientists also conducted "civilizing" experiments on chimpanzees in order to gauge both primate intelligence and the limits of their brainpower.Theory
The study of primatology looks at the biological and psychological aspects of non-human primates. The focus is on studying the common links between humans and primates. It is believed that by understanding our closest animal relatives, we might better understand the nature shared with our ancestors.Methods
Western primatology is a science. The general belief is that the scientific observation of nature must be either extremely limited, or completely controlled. Either way, the observers must be neutral to their subjects. This allows for data to be unbiased and for the subjects to be uninfluenced by human interference.There are three methodological approaches in primatology: field study, the more realistic approach, laboratory study, the more controlled approach, and semi-free ranging, where primate habitat and wild social structure is replicated in a captive setting.
Field is done in natural environments, in which scientific observers watch primates in their natural habitat.
Laboratory study is done in controlled lab settings. In lab settings, scientists are able to perform controlled experimentation on the learning capabilities and behavioral patterns of the animals.
In semi-free ranging studies, scientists are able to watch how primates would act in the wild but have continual access to them, the ability to do lifetime studies, and the ability to control their environments. Such facilities include the Living Links Center at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center
Yerkes National Primate Research Center
The Yerkes National Primate Research Center, originally established and located in Orange Park, Florida but was later relocated to Atlanta, Georgia at Emory University, is one of eight national primate research centers funded by the National Institutes of Health...
in Georgia and the Elgin Center
Elgin Center
The Elgin Center is a non-profit research center which specializes in zoosemiotics, or animal communication. The Elgin Center carries out research in the wild The Elgin Center is a non-profit research center which specializes in zoosemiotics, or animal communication. The Elgin Center carries out...
at Lion Country Safari
Lion Country Safari
Lion Country Safari is a drive-through safari park located in Loxahatchee , in Palm Beach County, Florida. Founded in 1967, it claims to be the first 'cageless zoo' in the United States....
in Florida.
All types of primate study in the Western methodology are meant to be very neutral. Although there are certain Western primatologists who do more subjective research, the emphasis in this discipline is on the objective.
Early primatology tended to focus on individual researchers and their exploits. Stories of researchers such as Dian Fossey
Dian Fossey
Dian Fossey was an American zoologist who undertook an extensive study of gorilla groups over a period of 18 years. She studied them daily in the mountain forests of Rwanda, initially encouraged to work there by famous anthropologist Louis Leakey...
and Jane Goodall
Jane Goodall
Dame Jane Morris Goodall, DBE , is a British primatologist, ethologist, anthropologist, and UN Messenger of Peace. Considered to be the world's foremost expert on chimpanzees, Goodall is best known for her 45-year study of social and family interactions of wild chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National...
are examples of this. Long-term sites of research tend to be best associated with their founders, and this leads to some tension between younger primatologists and the veterans in the field.
Notable Western primatologists
- Jeanne Altmann
- Jean Baulu
- Irwin Bernstein
- Michelle Bezanson
- Sarah Blaffer HrdySarah Blaffer HrdySarah Hrdy is an American anthropologist and primatologist who has made several major contributions to evolutionary psychology and sociobiology.-Early life:...
- Christophe BoeschChristophe BoeschChristophe Boesch is a primatologist who studies chimpanzees. He and his wife work together, and he has both written articles and directed documentaries about chimpanzees....
- Sue Boinski
- Geoffrey Bourne
- Josep CallJosep CallJosep Call is a comparative psychologist specializing in primate cognition. He was born in Catalonia, Spain and received a BA from the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona , and a master's degree and PhD from Emory University , under the supervision of Prof. Michael Tomasello...
- C. R. CarpenterClarence Ray CarpenterClarence Ray Carpenter was an American primatologist who was one of the first scientific investigators to film and videotape the behavior of primates in their natural environments....
- Colin Chapman
- Dorothy Cheney
- Marina Cords
- Thomas DeflerThomas DeflerThomas R. Defler is a North American primatologist who has lived and worked in Colombia for many years. He earned his PhD from the University of Colorado at Denver in 1976 and then he moved to Colombia...
- Frans de WaalFrans de WaalFransiscus Bernardus Maria de Waal, PhD , is a Dutch primatologist and ethologist. He is the Charles Howard Candler professor of Primate Behavior in the Emory University psychology department in Atlanta, Georgia, and director of the Living Links Center at the Yerkes National Primate Research...
- Alejandro EstradaAlejandro EstradaAlejandro Estrada is a primatologist and the author and editor of several books and articles about primates. He is a research scientist at the field research station Los Tuxtlas of Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico He is co-executive editor of...
- Linda Fedigan
- Dian FosseyDian FosseyDian Fossey was an American zoologist who undertook an extensive study of gorilla groups over a period of 18 years. She studied them daily in the mountain forests of Rwanda, initially encouraged to work there by famous anthropologist Louis Leakey...
- Agustin FuentesAgustin FuentesAgustin Fuentes is an American primatologist and Biological Anthropologist whose work focuses largely on human and non-human primate interaction, pathogen transfer, communication, cooperation, and human social evolution.-Career:...
- Birutė GaldikasBirute GaldikasBirutė Marija Filomena Galdikas, OC , is a primatologist, conservationist, ethologist, and author of several books relating to the endangered orangutan, particularly the Bornean orangutan. Well known in the field of modern primatology, Galdikas is recognized as a leading authority on orangutans...
- Paul GarberPaul GarberPaul Garber is a primatologist and the author and editor of several books and articles about primates. He is a professor at the University of Illinois. He is editor of the American Journal of Primatology and director of research and education at La Suerte Biological Field School in Costa Rica...
- Thomas R. Gillespie
- Jane GoodallJane GoodallDame Jane Morris Goodall, DBE , is a British primatologist, ethologist, anthropologist, and UN Messenger of Peace. Considered to be the world's foremost expert on chimpanzees, Goodall is best known for her 45-year study of social and family interactions of wild chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National...
- Colin GrovesColin GrovesColin Peter Groves is Professor of Biological Anthropology at the Australian National University in Canberra, Australia.Born in England on 24 June 1942, Colin Groves completed a Bachelor of Science at University College London in 1963, and a Doctor of Philosophy at the Royal Free Hospital School of...
- Alexander Harcourt
- Philip HershkovitzPhilip HershkovitzPhilip Hershkovitz was an American mammalogist. Born in Pittsburgh, he attended the Universities of Pittsburgh and Michigan and lived in South America collecting mammals. In 1947, he was appointed a curator at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago and he continued to work there until his...
- Gottfried Hohmann
- Lynne Isbellhttp://www.anthro.ucdavis.edu/people/lynne-a.-isbell-1/lynne-a.-isbell
- Hans Kummer
- Boris Lapin
- Nadezhda Ladygina-Kohts
- Bill McGrew
- John Mitani
- Russell MittermeierRussell MittermeierRussell Alan Mittermeier is a primatologist, herpetologist and biological anthropologist. He has written several books for both popular and scientist audiences, and has authored some 300 scientific papers.-Biography:...
- Nicholas Newton-Fisher
- Matthew RichardsonMatthew Richardson (author)Matthew Richardson is a Canadian author and primatologist. He is best known for his historical piece, The Royal Book of Lists: An Irreverent Romp Through British Royal History from Alfred the Great to Prince William ....
- Shawn Ridgeway
- Anne E. RussonAnne E. RussonAnne E. Russon is a Professor of Psychology at Glendon College, York University, Toronto, Canada whose research focuses on learning and intelligence in ex-captive Bornean orangutans....
- Anthony Rylands
- Jordi Sabater PiJordi Sabater PiJordi Sabater Pi was a Catalan primatologist and worldwide specialist in ethology and the discoverer of cultural behaviors of several species, including the use of tools by chimpanzees. During the 1960s he discovered Snowflake, a very rare albino gorilla that used to live in the zoo of...
- Robert SapolskyRobert SapolskyRobert Maurice Sapolsky is an American scientist and author. He is currently Professor of Biological Sciences, and Professor of Neurology and Neurological Sciences and, by courtesy, Neurosurgery, at Stanford University. In addition, he is a Research Associate at the National Museums of...
- Carel van SchaikCarel van SchaikCarolus Philippus "Carel" van Schaik is a Dutch primatologist who since 2004 is professor and director of the Anthropological Institute and Museum at the University of Zürich, Switzerland....
- Robert SeyfarthRobert Seyfarth- Background : Robert Seyfarth grew up as a member of a prominent local family. His grandfather William Seyfarth had come to the United States in 1848 from Schloss Tonndorf in what is now the state of Thuringia, Germany, with the intention of opening a tavern in Chicago...
- Meredith SmallMeredith SmallMeredith F. Small is a Professor of Anthropology at Cornell University and popular science author. She was born November 20, 1950, in St. Louis, Missouri. She has been widely published in academic journals, and her research is well presented in her most popular book: "Our Babies, Ourselves". She...
- Barbara SmutsBarbara SmutsBarbara B. Smuts is an American anthropologist and psychologist noted for her research into baboons, dolphins, and chimpanzees.Smuts received a Bachelors Degree in Anthropology from Harvard University and a Ph.D in neurological and biological behavioral science from Stanford Medical School...
- Craig StanfordCraig StanfordCraig Stanford is Professor of Biological Sciences and Anthropology and Co-Director of the USC Jane Goodall Research Center at the University of Southern California. He is known for his field studies of apes, monkeys and other tropical animals, and has published more than 130 scientific papers and...
- Karen Strier
- Tom Struhsaker
- Michael TomaselloMichael TomaselloMichael Tomasello is an American developmentalpsychologist. He is a co-director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.-Life:...
- Omar WasowOmar WasowOmar Tomas Wasow is an internet analyst who appears frequently on radio and television. Wasow tutored Oprah Winfrey in her first exploration of the Net in the 12-part series Oprah Goes Online...
- Sherwood WashburnSherwood WashburnSherwood Larned Washburn , nicknamed "Sherry", was an American physical anthropologist and pioneer in the field of primatology, opening it to study of primates in their natural habitats...
- David P. WattsDavid P. WattsDavid Watts is a professor of anthropology at Yale University. As a physical anthropologist he has studied chimpanzees. He directed the Karisoke Research Center in Rwanda founded by Dian Fossey for two years, and is doing research on chimpanzees in a long term study at Ngogo National Park in...
- Barbara J. Welker
- Richard WranghamRichard WranghamRichard W. Wrangham is a British primatologist. He is the Ruth Moore Professor of Biological Anthropology at Harvard University and his research group is now part of the newly established Department of Human Evolutionary Biology....
- Gabriel Zunino
Origins
The discipline of Japanese primatology was developed out of animal ecologyEcology
Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount , number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems...
. It is mainly credited to Kinji Imanishi
Kinji Imanishi
was a Japanese ecologist and anthropologist. He was the founder of Kyoto University's Primate Research Institute, and together with Junichiro Itani is considered the founder of Japanese primatology.- Publications :...
and Junichiro Itani
Junichiro Itani
is considered a founder of the discipline of Japanese primatology. He was an internationally renowned anthropologist and served as a professor emeritus at Kyoto University. He died at age 75 of pneumonia.-Books available in English:...
. Imanishi was an animal ecologist who began studying wild horses before focusing more on primate ecology. He helped found the Primate Research Group in 1950. Junichiro was a renowned anthropologist and a professor at Kyoto University
Kyoto University
, or is a national university located in Kyoto, Japan. It is the second oldest Japanese university, and formerly one of Japan's Imperial Universities.- History :...
. He is a co-founder of the Primate Research Institute
Primate Research Institute
The Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University is a national research center for the study of primates. It was founded in 1967 by primatologists Kinji Imanishi and Junichiro Itani. The Institute works toward understanding the biological, behavioral and socioecological aspects of primates, and the...
and the Centre for African Area Studies.
Theory
The Japanese discipline of primatology tends to be more interested in the social aspects of primates. Social evolutionSocial evolution
Social evolution is a subdiscipline of evolutionary biology that is concerned with social behaviors that have fitness consequences for individuals other than the actor...
and anthropology are of primary interest to them. The Japanese theory believes that studying primates will give us insight into the duality of human nature: individual self vs. social self.
The traditional and cultural aspects of Japanese science lend themselves to an “older sibling” mentality. It is believed that animals should be treated with respect, but also a firm authority. This is not to say that the Japanese study of primatology is cruel – far from it – just that it does not feel that their subjects should be given reverential treatment.
One particular Japanese primatologist, Kawai Masao
Kawai Masao
is a Japanese primatologist, who forwarded the concept of kyokan as a means of studying primates in his book Life of Japanese Monkeys .-External Links:*...
, introduced the concept of kyokan
Kyokan
Kyokan is a Japanese word that means "feel-one". It is a concept forwarded by Masao Kawai as a means of studying primates in the field. It first appeared to Western primatologists in Kawai’s book Life of Japanese Monkeys ....
. This was the theory
Theory
The English word theory was derived from a technical term in Ancient Greek philosophy. The word theoria, , meant "a looking at, viewing, beholding", and referring to contemplation or speculation, as opposed to action...
that the only way to attain reliable scientific knowledge was to attain a mutual relation, personal attachment and shared life with the animal subjects. Though Kawai is the only Japanese primatologist associated with the use of this term, the underlying principle is part of the foundation of Japanese primate research.
Methods
Japanese primatology is a carefully disciplined subjectiveSubjectivity
Subjectivity refers to the subject and his or her perspective, feelings, beliefs, and desires. In philosophy, the term is usually contrasted with objectivity.-Qualia:...
science. It is believed that the best data comes through identification with your subject. Neutrality is eschewed in favour of a more casual atmosphere, where researcher and subject can mingle more freely. Domestication of nature is not only desirable, but necessary for study.
Japanese primatologists are renowned for their ability to recognise animals by sight, and indeed most primates in a research group are usually named and numbered. Comprehensive data on every single subject in a group is uniquely Japanese trait of primate research. Each member of the primate community has a part to play, and the Japanese researchers are interested in this complex interaction.
For Japanese researchers in primatology, the findings of the team are emphasised over the individual. The study of primates is a group effort, and the group will get the credit for it. A team of researchers may observe a group of primates for several years in order to gather very detailed demographic and social histories.
Notable Japanese primatologists
- Imanishi, KinjiKinji Imanishiwas a Japanese ecologist and anthropologist. He was the founder of Kyoto University's Primate Research Institute, and together with Junichiro Itani is considered the founder of Japanese primatology.- Publications :...
- Junichiro, ItaniJunichiro Itaniis considered a founder of the discipline of Japanese primatology. He was an internationally renowned anthropologist and served as a professor emeritus at Kyoto University. He died at age 75 of pneumonia.-Books available in English:...
- Masao, KawaiKawai Masaois a Japanese primatologist, who forwarded the concept of kyokan as a means of studying primates in his book Life of Japanese Monkeys .-External Links:*...
- Tetsuro MatsuzawaTetsuro Matsuzawais a primatologist who is director of the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University.Matsuzawa is known for his research on chimpanzee intelligence both in the laboratory and in the wild. His laboratory work consists of the Ai-project, which focuses on the language-like skills, number-concepts,...
- Toshisada Nishida
- Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, Mariko
- Jensen, Erik
Primatology in sociobiology
Where sociobiologySociobiology
Sociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology,...
attempts to understand the actions of all animal species within the context of advantageous and disadvantageous behaviors, primatology takes an exclusive look at the order Primates, which includes Homo sapiens. The interface between primatology and sociobiology examines in detail the evolution of primate behavioral processes, and what studying our closest living primate relatives can tell about our own minds. As the American anthropologist Earnest Albert Hooton used to say: "Primas sum: primatum nil a me alienum puto" ("I am a primate; nothing about primates is outside of my bailiwick"). The meeting point of these two disciplines has become a nexus of discussion on key issues concerning the evolution of sociality, the development and purpose of language and deceit, and the development and propagation of culture.
Additionally, this interface is of particular interest to the science watchers in science and technology studies, who examine the social conditions which incite, mould, and eventually react to scientific discoveries and knowledge. The STS approach to primatology and sociobiology stretches beyond studying the apes, into the realm of observing the people studying the apes.
Taxonomic basis
Before DarwinCharles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
, and before molecular biology
Molecular biology
Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
, the father of modern taxonomy, Carolus Linnaeus
Carolus Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus , also known after his ennoblement as , was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology...
, organized natural objects into kinds, that we now know reflect their evolutionary relatedness. He sorted these kinds by morphology
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
, the shape of the object. Animals such as monkeys, chimpanzees and orangutans resemble humans closely, so Linnaeus placed Homo sapiens together with other similar-looking organisms into the taxonomic order Primates. Modern molecular biology reinforced humanity’s place within the Primate order. Humans and simians share the vast majority of their DNA
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
, with chimpanzees sharing between 97-99% genetic identity with humans.
From grooming to speaking
Although social groomingSocial grooming
In social animals, including humans, social grooming or allogrooming is an activity in which individuals in a group clean or maintain one another's body or appearance. It is a major social activity, and a means by which animals who live in proximity can bond and reinforce social structures, family...
is observed in many animal species, the grooming activities undertaken by primates are not strictly for the elimination of parasites. In primates, grooming is a social activity that strengthens relationships. The amount of grooming taking place between members of a troop is a potent indicator of alliance formation or troop solidarity. Robin Dunbar
Robin Dunbar
Robin Ian MacDonald Dunbar is a British anthropologist and evolutionary psychologist and a specialist in primate behaviour. He is currently Professor of Evolutionary Anthropology and the Director of the Institute of Cognitive and Evolutionary Anthropology of the University of Oxford and the...
suggests a link between primate grooming and the development of human language. The size of the neocortex
Neocortex
The neocortex , also called the neopallium and isocortex , is a part of the brain of mammals. It is the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres, and made up of six layers, labelled I to VI...
in a primate’s brain correlates directly to the number of individuals it can keep track of socially, be it a troop of chimps or a tribe of humans.
This number is referred to as the monkeysphere. If a population exceeds the size outlined by its cognitive limitations, the group undergoes a schism. Set into an evolutionary context, the Dunbar number shows a drive for the development of a method of bonding that is less labor intensive than grooming: language. As the monkeysphere grows, the amount of time that would need to be spent grooming troopmates soon becomes unmanageable. Furthermore, it is only possible to bond with one troopmate at a time while grooming. The evolution of vocal communication solves both the time constraint and the one-on-one problem, but at a price.
Language allows for bonding with multiple people at the same time at a distance, but the bonding produced by language is less intense. This view of language evolution covers the general biological trends needed for language development, but it takes another hypothesis to uncover the evolution of the cognitive processes necessary for language.
Modularity of the primate mind
Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years. Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics" and...
’s concept of innate language addresses the existence of universal grammar
Universal grammar
Universal grammar is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all possible natural human languages have.Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without being taught...
, which suggests a special kind of “device” all humans are born with whose sole purpose is language. Fodor
Jerry Fodor
Jerry Alan Fodor is an American philosopher and cognitive scientist. He holds the position of State of New Jersey Professor of Philosophy at Rutgers University and is the author of many works in the fields of philosophy of mind and cognitive science, in which he has laid the groundwork for the...
’s modular mind hypothesis expands on this concept, suggesting the existence of preprogrammed modules for dealing with many, or all aspects of cognition. Although these modules do not need to be physically distinct, they must be functionally distinct. Orangutans are currently being taught language at the Smithsonian National Zoo using a computer system developed by primatologist Dr. Francine Neago
Francine Neago
Dr. Francine Neago is a primatologist and conservationist specializing in orangutans. In addition to her internationally televised films about orangutans she has lectured worldwide and published several scientific papers in the Journal of Primatology .At UCLA she developed a computer system in...
in conjunction with IBM
IBM
International Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas...
.
The massive modularity theory thesis posits that there is a huge number of tremendously interlinked but specialized modules running programs called Darwinian algorithms, or DA. DA can be selected for just as a gene can, eventually improving cognition. The contrary theory, of generalist mind, suggests that the brain is just a big computer that runs one program, the mind. If the mind is a general computer, for instance, the ability to use reasoning should be identical regardless of the context. This is not what is observed. When faced with abstract numbers and letters with no “real world” significance, respondents of the Wason card test
Wason selection task
Devised in 1966 by Peter Cathcart Wason, the Wason selection task, one of the most famous tasks in the psychology of reasoning, is a logic puzzle which is formally equivalent to the following question:...
generally do very poorly. However, when exposed to a test with an identical rule set but socially relevant content, respondents score markedly higher. The difference is especially pronounced when the content is about reward and payment. This test strongly suggests that human logic is based on a module originally developed in a social environment to root out cheaters, and that either the module is at a huge disadvantage where abstract thinking is involved, or that other less effective modules are used when faced with abstract logic.
Further evidence supporting the modular mind has steadily emerged with some startling revelations concerning primates. A very recent study indicated that human babies and grown monkeys approach and process numbers in a similar fashion, suggesting an evolved set of DA for mathematics (Jordan). The conceptualization of both human infants and primate adults is cross-sensory, meaning that they can add 15 red dots to 20 beeps and approximate the answer to be 35 grey squares. As more evidence of basic cognitive modules
Philosophy of psychology
Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern psychology. Some of these issues are epistemological concerns about the methodology of psychological investigation...
are uncovered, they will undoubtedly form a more solid foundation upon which the more complex behaviors can be understood.
In contradiction to this, neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp
Jaak Panksepp
Jaak Panksepp is an Estonian-born American psychologist, a psychobiologist, a neuroscientist, the Baily Endowed Chair of Animal Well-Being Science for the Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology, and Physiology at Washington State University's College of Veterinary Medicine,...
has argued that the mind is not a computer nor is it massively modular. He states that no evidence of massive modularity or the brain as a digital computer has been gained through actual neuroscience, as opposed to psychological studies. He criticises psychologists who use the massive modularity thesis for not integrating neuroscience into their understanding.
The primate theory of mind
Primate behavior, like human behavior, is highly social and ripe with the intrigue of kingmakingKingmaker
Kingmaker is a term originally applied to the activities of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick — "Warwick the Kingmaker" — during the Wars of the Roses in England. The term has come to be applied more generally to a person or group that has great influence in a royal or political succession,...
, powerplays, deception, cuckoldry, and apology. In order to understand the staggeringly complex nature of primate interactions, we look to theory of mind
Theory of mind
Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires and intentions that are different from one's own...
. Theory of mind asks whether or not an individual recognizes and can keep track of information asymmetry
Information asymmetry
In economics and contract theory, information asymmetry deals with the study of decisions in transactions where one party has more or better information than the other. This creates an imbalance of power in transactions which can sometimes cause the transactions to go awry, a kind of market failure...
amongst individuals in the group, and whether or not they can attribute folk psychological states
Folk psychology
Folk psychology is the set of assumptions, constructs, and convictions that makes up the everyday language in which people discuss human psychology...
to their peers. If some primates can tell what others know and want and act accordingly, they can gain advantage and status.
Recently, chimpanzee theory of mind has been advanced by Felix Warneken of the Max Planck Institute. His studies have shown that chimpanzees can recognize whether a researcher desires a dropped object, and act accordingly by picking it up. Even more compelling is the observation that chimps will only act if the object is dropped in an accidental-looking manner: if the researcher drops the object in a way that appears intentional, the chimp will ignore the object.
In a related experiment, groups of chimps were given rope-pulling problems they could not solve individually. Warneken’s subjects rapidly figured out which individual in the group was the best rope puller and assigned it the bulk of the task. This research is highly indicative of the ability of chimps to detect the folk psychological state of “desire”, as well as the ability to recognize that other individuals are better at certain tasks than they are.
However primates do not always fare so well in situations requiring theory of mind. In one experiment pairs of chimpanzees who had been close grooming partners were offered two levers. Pressing one lever would bring them food and another would bring their grooming partner food. Pressing the lever to clearly give their grooming partner much-wanted food would not take away from how much food they themselves got. For some reason, the chimps were unwilling to depress the lever that would give their long-time chums food. It is plausible but unlikely that the chimps figured there was finite food and it would eventually decrease their own food reward. The experiments are open to such interpretations making it hard to establish anything for certain.
One phenomenon which would indicate a possible fragility of theory of mind in primates occurs when a baboon gets lost. Under such circumstances, the lost baboon generally makes "call barks" to announce that it is lost. Previous to the 1990s it was thought that these call barks would then be returned by the other baboons, similar to the case is in vervet monkeys. However when researchers studied this formally in the past few years they found something surprising: Only the baboons who were lost would ever give call barks. Even if an infant was wailing in agony just a few hundred meters away, its mother who would clearly recognise its voice and would be frantic about his safety (or alternatively run towards her infant depending on her own perceived safety), would often simply stare in his direction visibly agitated. If the anguishing baboon mother made any type of call at all, the infant would instantly recognise her and run to her position. This type of logic appears to be lost on the baboon, suggesting a serious gap in theory of mind of this otherwise seemingly very intelligent primate species. However, it is also possible that baboons do not return call barks for ecological reasons, for example because returning the call bark might call attention to the lost baboon, putting it at greater risk from predators.
Criticisms
Scientific studies concerning primate and human behavior have been subject to the same set of political and social complications, or biases, as every other scientific discipline. The borderline and multidisciplinary nature of primatology and sociobiology make them ripe fields of study because they are amalgams of objective and subjective sciences. Current scientific practice, especially in the hard sciences, requires a total dissociation of personal experience from the finished scientific product (Bauchspies 8). This is a strategy that is incompatible with observational field studies, and weakens them in the eyes of hard science. As mentioned above, the Western school of primatology tries to minimize or control subjectivity to the greatest degree possible, while the Japanese school of primatology tends to embrace the closeness inherent in studying nature.Social critics of science, some operating from within the field, cry foul when reviewing the young disciplines of primatology and sociobiology. Claims are made that researchers form opinions on issues concerning human sociality prior to doing their studies, and then seek evidence that agrees with their worldview or otherwise furthers a sociopolitical agenda. In particular, the use of primatological studies to assert gender roles, and promote or subvert feminism has been a serious point of contention.
An example of this is Zuckerman’s 1932 study of captive hamadryas baboon
Hamadryas Baboon
The Hamadryas baboon is a species of baboon from the Old World monkey family. It is the northernmost of all the baboons; being native to the Horn of Africa and the southwestern tip of the Arabian Peninsula. These regions provide habitats with the advantage for this species of fewer natural...
s, as critiqued in Sturm and Fedigan
Linda Marie Fedigan
Linda Marie Fedigan is currently a professor and Canada Research Chair in Primatology and Bioanthropology at the University of Calgary, Alberta. In addition, Fedigan is also the Executive Editor of the American Journal of Primatology and a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Prior to accepting...
's Changing Views on Primate Societies. Zuckerman observed male baboons kill each other off in great number in their captive environment. Whether intended or not, the study served to reinforce images of the male as the sole competitor in an often violent race to secure dominance
Dominance (ecology)
Ecological dominance is the degree to which a species is more numerous than its competitors in an ecological community, or makes up more of the biomass...
and access to a harem of females. Despite wildly unrealistic overcrowding and completely incorrect male to female ratio, Zuckerman's paper was viewed as good science at the time. These ideas were used to justifiy the status quo of human male dominance, and consequently, the studies were widely supported and assumed to be the basis of a primate-wide template for behavior, including that of humans. Incidentally, the hamadryas baboon females are among the most submissive and most gender-unequal of all primates, although primates and humans share a tremendous variation in troop structure (Hrdy 101, Stone).
A significant 2002 paper comparing primate/human cognition was retracted in August, 2010. Its lead author, Harvard University psychologist Marc Hauser, "is taking a year-long leave after a lengthy internal investigation found evidence of scientific misconduct in his laboratory." Videotaped control data supporting the authors' conclusion that cottontop tamarin
Cottontop Tamarin
The cotton-top tamarin , also known as the Pinché tamarin, is a small New World monkey weighing less than 1 lb...
monkeys displayed pattern-learning behavior similar to human infants reportedly was unable to be located after a three-year investigation.
Academic resources
- American Journal of PrimatologyAmerican Journal of PrimatologyThe American Journal of Primatology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal and the official journal of the American Society of Primatologists. It was established in 1981. The journal currently publishes 12 issues per year plus a supplementary issue detailing the program of the society's annual...
- International Journal of Primatology
- Journal of Medical Primatology
- Journal of Human Evolution
See also
- Physical anthropologyPhysical anthropologyBiological anthropology is that branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human species. It plays an important part in paleoanthropology and in forensic anthropology...
Primatologists
- Human geneticsHuman geneticsHuman genetics describes the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. Human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics,...
- Human evolutionary geneticsHuman evolutionary geneticsHuman evolutionary genetics studies how one human genome differs from the other, the evolutionary past that gave rise to it, and its current effects. Differences between genomes have anthropological, medical and forensic implications and applications...
Primate research centers
External links
- World Directory of Primatologists
- Primatologist Biographies
- multisensory representation of number in infancy
- Primatology.net A community run blog, with contributions from primatology academics and enthusiasts from around the world.