Angola (also
Portuguese West Africa,
Portuguese Angola or the
Overseas Province of Angola) is the common name by which the
Portuguese EmpireThe Portuguese Empire was the first global empire in history, with territories in South America, Africa, India and South East Asia...
's territorial expansion in South-West Africa was known across different periods of time. Angola was the name of the Portuguese overseas colonies and later a Portuguese overseas province on the south-west African coast, which now form the republic of
AngolaAngola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean. The exclave province of Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the...
.
History
The colonial history of Angola lasted from the foundation of Portuguese settlements, forts and ports in the region, its annexation as a colony in 1655, and its renewed statute as an overseas province of Portugal, effective October 20, 1951.
Portugal defeated the Kongo Kingdom in the
Battle of MbwilaAt the Battle of Mbwila on October 29, 1665, Portuguese forces defeated the forces of the Kingdom of Kongo and decapitated king António I of Kongo, also called Nvita a Nkanga.-Origins of the War:...
on October 29, 1665, but suffered a disastrous defeat at the
Battle of KitomboThe Battle of Kitombo was a military engagement between forces of the BaKongo state of Soyo, formerly a province of the Kingdom of Kongo, and the Portuguese colony of Angola.-Pre-Battle Situation:...
when they tried to invade Kongo in 1670. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior was not achieved until the beginning of the twentieth century. However, the coastal regions, including fortified Portuguese towns like those of
LuandaLuanda is the capital and largest city of Angola. Located on Angola's coast with the Atlantic Ocean, Luanda is both Angola's chief seaport and administrative center and has a population of at least 5 million . It is also the capital city of Luanda Province. Luanda is located at...
(established in 1575 with 400 Portuguese settlers) and
BenguelaBenguela is a city in western Angola, south of Luanda, and capital of Benguela Province. It lies on a bay of the same name, in 12° 33’ S., 13° 25’ E. Benguela is Angola's second most famous city and self-appointed cultural capital...
(a fort from 1587, a town from 1617) remained almost continuously in Portuguese hands until the independence of Angola in 1975.
In 1884 Britain, which up to that time had steadily refused to acknowledge that Portugal possessed territorial rights north of Ambriz, concluded a treaty recognizing Portuguese sovereignty over both banks of the lower Congo, but the treaty, meeting with opposition in
EnglandEngland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
and
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
, was not ratified. Agreements concluded with the
Congo Free StateThe Congo Free State was a corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II, King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization, the Association Internationale Africaine. Leopold was the sole shareholder and chairman, exploiting the state for rubber, copper and other minerals in...
, the
German EmpireThe German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918, when it became a German republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II .The term Second Reich...
and
FranceThe French Third Republic was the republican government of France between the end of the Second French Empire in 1870 and the Vichy Regime after the invasion of France by the German...
in 1885-1886 fixed the limits of the province, except in the south-east, where the frontier between Barotseland (north-west
RhodesiaWhen the former colony of Northern Rhodesia changed its name to Zambia on independence in 1964, the colony of Southern Rhodesia changed its name to just plain 'Rhodesia'. The change had not yet been officialy ratified when Rhodesia declared itself independent on 11 November 1965...
) and Angola was determined by an Anglo-Portuguese agreement of 1891 and the arbitration award of the
King of ItalyKing of Italy is a title adopted by many rulers of the Italian peninsula after the fall of the Roman Empire...
in 1905.
Geography
Portuguese Angola was a territory covering 1,246,700 km², an area greater than
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
and
SpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
[The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España , Estado español and Nación española are used interchangeably...]
put together. It had 5,198 km of terrestrial borders and a coastline with 1,600 km. Its geography was diverse. From the coastal plain, ranging in width from 25 kilometers in the south to 100-200 kilometers in the north, the land rises in stages towards the high inland plateau covering almost two-thirds of the country, with an average altitude of between 1,200 and 1,600 meters. Angola's two highest peaks were located in these central highlands. They were Moco Mountain (2,620 m) and Meco Mountain (2,538 m).
Most of Angola’s rivers rose in the central mountains. Of the many rivers that drain to the Atlantic Ocean, the
CuanzaThe Cuanza River is a river in Angola. It empties into the Atlantic Ocean just south of the nation's capital, Luanda....
and
CuneneThe Cunene River or Kunene River is a river in Southern Africa. It flows from the Angola highlands south to the border with Namibia. It then flows west along the border until it reaches the Atlantic Ocean. It is one of the few perennial rivers in the region. It is about long, with a drainage...
were the most important. Other major streams included the
Kwango RiverKwango is a 1100 km long river in Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It originates in the highlands of central Angola and flows generally northwards, then it makes a border between these two countries. Then it flows in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and empties to Kasai River...
, which drains north to the
Congo RiverThe Congo River is the largest river in Western Central Africa. Its overall length of 4,700 km makes it the second longest in Africa .-Background:...
system, and the Kwando and Cubango Rivers, both of which drain generally southeast to the
Okavango DeltaThe Okavango Delta , in Botswana, is the world's largest inland delta where the Okavango River empties onto a swamp in an endorheic basin in the Kalahari Desert instead of draining into the sea...
. As the land drops from the plateau, many rapids and waterfalls plunge downward in the rivers. Portuguese Angola had no sizable lakes, besides those formed by dams and reservoirs built by the Portuguese administration.
The capital of the territory was
LuandaLuanda is the capital and largest city of Angola. Located on Angola's coast with the Atlantic Ocean, Luanda is both Angola's chief seaport and administrative center and has a population of at least 5 million . It is also the capital city of Luanda Province. Luanda is located at...
, officially called São Paulo de Luanda. Other cities and towns were:
- Porto Amboim
- Vila Teixeira da Silva
Bailundo is a municipality and town in Huambo Province in the central highlands of Angola.In the 1990s, Bailundo was the location of the headquarters of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi....
- São Felipe de Benguela
Benguela is a city in western Angola, south of Luanda, and capital of Benguela Province. It lies on a bay of the same name, in 12° 33’ S., 13° 25’ E. Benguela is Angola's second most famous city and self-appointed cultural capital...
- Vila Robert Williams
Caála is a town located in Huambo Province in Angola. It was known as Robert Williams town while Angola was a Portuguese colony, after the famous railroad developer and mining magnate, Sir Robert Williams. The town's last known population count was 22,010....
- Duque de Bragança
Calandula is a town and municipality in Malanje Province in Angola....
- Vila General Machado
Camacupa is a town and municipality in Bié Province in Angola.It lies on the Central Railway of Angola which heads inland from the port of Benguela.- External links :*...
- Vila João de Almeida
Chibia is a town and municipality in Huíla Province in Angola.It is served by a station on the southern network of the national railway network....
- Vila Mariano Machado
Ganda is a town and municipality in Benguela Province in Angola.It lies on the central line of Angolan Railways where there is a junction....
- Nova Lisboa
Formerly Nova Lisboa Huambo is the capital of Huambo province in Angola. The city is located about 220 km E from Benguela and 600 km SE from Luanda. The city's last known population count was 225,268...
- Silva Porto
Kuito is a city located in central Angola. It is the administrative capital of Bié Province. Under Portuguese rule until 1975, it was called Silva Porto. Kuito was under siege in 1993/94 and again in 1998/99 by the rebel forces from UNITA...
- Vila da Ponte
Kuvango is a town and municipality in Huíla Province in Angola.It is served by a station on the southern line of the national railway system....
- Lobito
Lobito is a town and municipality in Benguela Province in Angola.It dates from 1905 and owes its existence to the bay of the same name having been chosen as the sea terminus of the Benguela railway to the far interior, passing through Luau to Katanga in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The...
- Sá da Bandeira
Lubango is the capital city of the Angolan province of Huíla. Its last known population was 100,757. Until 1975, the city official name was Sá da Bandeira.-Portuguese rule:...
- Vila Luso
Luena can refer to:*Luena, Moxico Province, Angola, the Luena River, Angola which rises near it, and the Luena people, and ethnic group in the area*Luena River, the name of several rivers in south-central Africa*Luena, Cantabria, Spain...
- Malanje
Malange is the capital city of Malanje Province in Angola Pop. 222,000 aprox. Malange, at an elevation of 1,220 m. Nearby is the spectacular Calandula waterfalls, 85 km from the city. These falls are 105 metres high and their great width makes them the main tourist attraction in the region. It...
- Forte República
Massango is a town and municipality in Malanje Province in Angola....
- São Salvador do Congo
- Serpa Pinto
Menongue is a town and municipality in Cuando Cubango Province in Angola.It is the terminus of the southern railway from Namibe.-History:Menongue was called Serpa Pinto during the Portuguese rule of the territory. It was named so after Alexandre de Serpa Pinto , a Portuguese explorer of southern...
- Môçamedes
Mossâmedes is a small city in the state of Goiás, Brazil. For that article see MossâmedesNamibe is the capital city of Namibe Province in Angola. Namibe is located in southwestern Angola and was founded in 1840. The city's current population is 132,900...
- Vila Salazar
N'dalatando is a town and municipality and capital of Cuanza Norte Province in Angola.It is served by a station on the northern railway of Angolan Railways....
- Vila Pereira d'Eça
- Vila Henrique de Carvalho
Saurimo is the capital of the Lunda Sul province of Angola, Saurimo has a population of approximately 200,000. The population has increased due to migrants fleeing areas affected by the civil war.- Overview :...
- Santo António do Zaire
Soyo is a city located in the province of Zaire in Angola.Soyo became recently, the largest oil-producing region in the country, with an estimate of 1,200,000 barrels per day.-Early history:...
- Novo Redondo
Sumbe is a city located in west central Angola. It is the administrative capital of Cuanza Sul Province. Its population counts about 26,000....
- Porto Alexandre
- Carmona
Uíge is a town and municipality in Uige Province in Angola.It has a population of 50,000. It had the worst known ever outbreak of the Marburg virus in 2005....
The exclave of
CabindaCabinda is an exclave and province of Angola, a status that has been disputed by many political organizations in the territory. The capital city is also called Cabinda. The province is divided into four municipalities - Belize, Buco Zau, Cabinda and Congo.Modern Cabinda results from the fusion of...
was to the north.
Economy
Kingdom of PortugalThe Kingdom of Portugal was Portugal's general designation under the monarchy. The kingdom was located in the west of the Iberian Peninsula, Europe and existed from 1139 to 1910...
's explorers and settlers, founded trading posts and forts along the coast of
AfricaAfrica is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With a billion people in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.8% of the...
since the 15th century, and reached the
AngolaAngola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean. The exclave province of Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the...
n coast in the 16th century. Portuguese explorer
Paulo Dias de NovaisPaulo Dias de Novais , a nobleman of the Royal Household, was a Portuguese colonizer of Africa in the 16th century and the first Captain-Governor of Angola. He was the grandson of the explorer Bartolomeu Dias....
founded
LuandaLuanda is the capital and largest city of Angola. Located on Angola's coast with the Atlantic Ocean, Luanda is both Angola's chief seaport and administrative center and has a population of at least 5 million . It is also the capital city of Luanda Province. Luanda is located at...
in 1575 as "São Paulo de Loanda", and the region developed as a
slave tradeSlavery in Angola existed since early times. Several peoples and tribes from current-day Angola, like the Imbangala and the Mbundu, were active slave traders for centuries...
market with the help of local
ImbangalaThe Imbangala or Mbangala were 17th century groups of Angolan warriors and marauders who founded the kingdom of Kasanje.-Origins of the Imbangala:...
and
MbunduThe Mbundu are a people living in Angola's North-West, North of the river Kwanza. The Mbundu speak Kimbundu, and the official language of the country, Portuguese. It is the second biggest ethnic group in the country, with 2.4 million people in the latest count...
peoples who were
notable slave huntersThe slave trade in Africa existed for thousands of years. The first main route passed through the Sahara, tying in to the Arab slave trade. After the European Age of Exploration, African slaves became part of the Atlantic slave trade, from which comes the modern, Western conception of slavery as...
. Trade was mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the ports of Luanda and Benguela. By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony. A strong Brazilian influence was also exercised by the Jesuits in religion and education. War gradually gave way to the philosophy of trade. The great trade routes and the agreements that made them possible were the driving force for activities between the different areas; warlike states become states ready to produce and to sell. In the Planalto (the high plains), the most important states were those of
BiéBié may refer to:* Bié in Angola* Bie, Ferdinand, co-champion of the pentathlon at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm.* Bié Plateau, a highland region in Angola*Saint Bienheuré...
and
BailundoBailundo is a municipality and town in Huambo Province in the central highlands of Angola.In the 1990s, Bailundo was the location of the headquarters of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi....
, the latter being noted for its production of foodstuffs and rubber. The colonial power, Portugal, becoming ever richer and more powerful, would not tolerate the growth of these neighbouring states and subjugated them one by one, so that by the beginning of this century the Portuguese had complete control over the entire area. During the period of the
Iberian UnionIberian Union is a modern day term that refers to the historical political unit that governed all of the Iberian Peninsula south of the Pyrenees from 1580–1640, through a personal union....
(1580-1640), Portugal lost influence and power and made new enemies. The
DutchThe Netherlands is a country in Northwestern Europe, constituting the major portion of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east...
, a major enemy of
CastileThe Crown of Castile, as a historic entity, is usually considered to have begun in 1230 with the third and almost definitive union of the monarchies of kingdoms Castile and Toledo in one hand, and the kingdoms of Leon and Galicia in other hand, and with the union of their parliaments a few decades...
, invaded many Portuguese overseas possessions, including
LuandaLuanda is the capital and largest city of Angola. Located on Angola's coast with the Atlantic Ocean, Luanda is both Angola's chief seaport and administrative center and has a population of at least 5 million . It is also the capital city of Luanda Province. Luanda is located at...
. The Dutch ruled Luanda from 1640 to 1648 as Fort Aardenburgh. They were seeking black slaves for use in
sugarcaneSugarcane, or sugar cane, is any of six to thirty-seven species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to warm temperate to tropical regions of Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six meters tall...
plantations of
Northeastern BrazilThe Northeast Region of Brazil is composed of the following states: Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe and Bahia, and it represents 18.26% of the Brazilian territory....
(
PernambucoPernambuco is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. To the north are the states of Paraíba and Ceará, to the west is Piauí, to the south are Alagoas and Bahia, and to the east is the Atlantic Ocean. There are about 187 kilometers of beaches, some of the most...
,
OlindaOlinda is a historic city in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco, located on the country's northeastern Atlantic Ocean coast, just north of Recife and south of Paulista. It has a population of 394,850 people and is one of the best-preserved colonial cities in Brazil...
,
RecifeRecife is the 5th largest Metropolitan area in Brazil with 3,768,902 inhabitants, the largest metropolitan area of the North/Northeast Regions, the 4th largest metropolitan influence area in Brazil, and the capital of the state of Pernambuco. The population of the city proper was 1,561,659 in 2009...
) which they had also seized from Portugal. John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen, conquered the Portuguese possessions of
Saint George del MinaElmina, is a town in the Central Region, situated on a south-facing bay on the Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana, about 12 km west of Cape Coast. The first European settlement in West Africa, it now has a population of around 20,000 people....
, Saint Thomas, and Luanda, Angola, on the west coast of Africa. After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640, Portugal would reestablish its authority over the lost territories of the
Portuguese EmpireThe Portuguese Empire was the first global empire in history, with territories in South America, Africa, India and South East Asia...
.
The Portuguese started to develop townships, trading posts, logging camps and small processing factories. From 1764 onwards, there was a gradual change from a
slave-based societySlavery in Angola existed since early times. Several peoples and tribes from current-day Angola, like the Imbangala and the Mbundu, were active slave traders for centuries...
to one based on production for domestic consumption and export. Meanwhile, with the independence of Brazil in 1822, the slave trade was abolished in 1836, and in 1844 Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast
Portuguese EmpireThe Portuguese Empire was the first global empire in history, with territories in South America, Africa, India and South East Asia...
outside Mainland Portugal, full of trading companies, exporting (together with
BenguelaBenguela is a city in western Angola, south of Luanda, and capital of Benguela Province. It lies on a bay of the same name, in 12° 33’ S., 13° 25’ E. Benguela is Angola's second most famous city and self-appointed cultural capital...
) palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products. Maize, tobacco, dried meat and cassava flour also began to be produced locally. The Angolan bourgeoisie was born. From the 1920s to the 1960s, strong economic growth, abundant natural resources and development of infrastruture, led to the arrival of even more Portuguese settlers from the
metropoleThe metropole, from the Greek Metropolis 'mother city' was the name given to the British metropolitan center of the British Empire, i.e. the United Kingdom itself...
.
DiamondIn mineralogy, diamond is an allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is the second most stable form of carbon, after graphite; however, the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is...
mining began in 1912, when the first gems were discovered by Portuguese prospectors in a stream of the Lunda region, in the northeast. In 1917 Diamang was granted the concession for diamond mining and prospecting in Portuguese Angola. From the mid-1950s until 1974,
iron oreIron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red. The iron itself is usually found in the form of magnetite , hematite , goethite, limonite or...
was mined in
MalanjeMalange is the capital city of Malanje Province in Angola Pop. 222,000 aprox. Malange, at an elevation of 1,220 m. Nearby is the spectacular Calandula waterfalls, 85 km from the city. These falls are 105 metres high and their great width makes them the main tourist attraction in the region. It...
,
BiéBié may refer to:* Bié in Angola* Bie, Ferdinand, co-champion of the pentathlon at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm.* Bié Plateau, a highland region in Angola*Saint Bienheuré...
,
HuamboFormerly Nova Lisboa Huambo is the capital of Huambo province in Angola. The city is located about 220 km E from Benguela and 600 km SE from Luanda. The city's last known population count was 225,268...
, and
HuílaHuila may refer to:* Huila Department, in Colombia* CD Atlético Huila a first division football team in Colombia.* Huíla , in Angola* Nevado del Huila, volcano in Colombia...
provinces, and production reached an average of 5.7 million tons per year between 1970 and 1974. Most of the iron ore was shipped to
Japanis an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
,
West GermanyWest Germany is a common English name for the period of the Federal Republic of Germany between its' formation in May 1949 to German reunification in October 1990, when the German Democratic Republic was dissolved and the five states on its territory joined the Federal Republic of Germany,...
, and the
United KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
, and earned almost US$50 million a year in export revenue. The
PortuguesePortugal , officially the Portuguese Republic , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east...
discovered
petroleumPetroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid found in rock formations in the Earth consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds.The term "petroleum" was first used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in...
in Angola in 1955. Production began in the Cuanza basin in the 1950s, in the
Congo basinThe Congo Basin is the sedimentary basin that is the drainage of the Congo River of west equatorial Africa. The basin begins in the highlands of the East African Rift system with input from the Chambeshi River, the Uele and Ubangi Rivers in the upper reaches and the Lualaba River draining wetlands...
in the 1960s, and in the exclave of
CabindaCabinda is an exclave and province of Angola, a status that has been disputed by many political organizations in the territory. The capital city is also called Cabinda. The province is divided into four municipalities - Belize, Buco Zau, Cabinda and Congo.Modern Cabinda results from the fusion of...
in 1968. The Portuguese government granted operating rights for Block Zero to the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, a subsidiary of ChevronTexaco, in 1955. Oil production surpassed the exportation of
coffeeCoffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant. They are seeds of "coffee cherries" that grow on trees in over 70 countries. It has been said that green coffee is the second most traded commodity in the world behind crude oil. Due to its...
as Angola's largest export in 1973.
By the early 1970s, a variety of crops and livestock were produced in Portuguese Angola. In the north,
cassavaCassava is a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae native to South America that is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates...
,
coffeeCoffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant. They are seeds of "coffee cherries" that grow on trees in over 70 countries. It has been said that green coffee is the second most traded commodity in the world behind crude oil. Due to its...
, and
cottonCotton is a soft, staple fiber that grows in a form known as a boll around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, India and Africa. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft,...
were grown; in the central highlands,
maizeMaize , is a herbaceous plant domesticated in Mesoamerica and subsequently spread throughout the American continents...
was cultivated; and in the south, where rainfall is lowest, cattle herding was prevalent. In addition, there were large plantations run by Portuguese that produced
palm oilPalm oil is an edible plant oil derived from the pulp of the fruit of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis.Palm oil is naturally reddish because it contains a high amount of beta-carotene . Palm oil is one of the few vegetable oils relatively high in saturated fats...
,
sugarcaneSugarcane, or sugar cane, is any of six to thirty-seven species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to warm temperate to tropical regions of Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six meters tall...
,
bananaBanana is the common name for a herbaceous plants of the genus Musa, and the commonly eaten fruit it produces. They are native to the tropical region of Southeast Asia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics.Banana...
s, and
sisalSisal is an agave that yields a stiff fiber traditionally used in making twine, rope and also dartboards. It is sometimes incorrectly referred to as sisal hemp because hemp was for centuries a major source for fiber, so other fibers were sometimes named after it.The plant's origin...
. These crops were grown by commercial farmers, primarily Portuguese, and by peasant farmers, who sold some of their surplus to local Portuguese traders in exchange for supplies. The commercial farmers were dominant in marketing these crops, however, and enjoyed substantial support from the overseas province's Portuguese government in the form of
technical assistanceDevelopment aid or development cooperation is aid given by governments and other agencies to support the economic, social and political development of developing countries.It is distinguished from humanitarian aid as being aimed at alleviating poverty in the...
, irrigation facilities, and financial credit. They produced the great majority of the crops that were marketed in Angola's urban centres or exported for several countries.
Fishing in Portuguese Angola was a major and growing industry. In the early 1970s, there were about 700 fishing boats, and the annual catch was more than 300,000 tons. Including the catch of foreign fishing fleets in Angolan waters, the combined annual catch was estimated at over 1 million tons. The Portuguese territory of Angola was a net exporter of fish products, and the ports of
MoçâmedesMossâmedes is a small city in the state of Goiás, Brazil. For that article see MossâmedesNamibe is the capital city of Namibe Province in Angola. Namibe is located in southwestern Angola and was founded in 1840. The city's current population is 132,900...
,
LuandaLuanda is the capital and largest city of Angola. Located on Angola's coast with the Atlantic Ocean, Luanda is both Angola's chief seaport and administrative center and has a population of at least 5 million . It is also the capital city of Luanda Province. Luanda is located at...
and
BenguelaBenguela is a city in western Angola, south of Luanda, and capital of Benguela Province. It lies on a bay of the same name, in 12° 33’ S., 13° 25’ E. Benguela is Angola's second most famous city and self-appointed cultural capital...
were among the most important fishing harbous in the region.
Education
Non-urban black African access to educational opportunities was highly limited for most of the
colonial periodDuring the colonial history of Angola the country was a part of Portuguese West Africa from the annexation of several territories in the region as a colony in 1655 until its designation as an overseas province, effective October 20, 1951. The Portuguese government incorporated Angola as a colony on...
, most were not even able to speak
PortuguesePortuguese is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia and northern Portugal. It is derived from the Latin spoken by the romanized Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 years ago...
and did not have knowledge of the Portuguese culture and
historyThe history of Portugal, a European and an Atlantic nation, dates back to the Early Middle Ages. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it ascended to the status of a world power during Europe's "Age of Discovery" as it built up a vast empire including possessions in South America, Africa, Asia and...
basics. Until the 1950s, educational facilities run by the Portuguese colonial government were largely restricted to the urban areas. Responsibility for educating rural Africans were commissioned by the authorities to several
Roman Catholicthumb|250px|Catholic Church in [[Huambo]]The Roman Catholic Church in Angola is part of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and Curia in Rome...
and
ProtestantThe existence of Protestants in Angola dates back to the late 19th century and in some places predates Portuguese colonial missionaries. Many of the nationalist independence leaders were raised as Protestants, including Jonas Savimbi...
missions based across the vast countryside, which taugh black Africans in Portuguese language and culture. As a consequence, each of the missions established its own
schoolA school , is an institution designed to allow and encourage students to learn, under the supervision of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools...
system, although all were subject to ultimate control and support by the
PortuguesePortugal , officially the Portuguese Republic , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east...
. In mainland Portugal, the homeland of the colonial authorities which ruled in the territory from the 16th century until 1975, by the end of the 19th century the illiteracy rates were at over 80 percent and higher education was reserved for a small percentage of the population. 68.1 percent of mainland Portugal's population was still classified as illiterate by the 1930
censusA "census" is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population.In other words every 10 years...next one would be in 2010 The term is used mostly in connection with...
. Mainland Portugal's literacy rate by the 1940s and early 1950s was low for
North AmericaNorth America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific...
n and
Western EuropeWestern Europe is the collection of countries in the westernmost region of Europe, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a cultural entity—the region lying west of Central Europe...
an standards at the time. Only in the 1960s did the country make public education available for all children between the ages of six and twelve, and the overseas territories profited from this new educational developments and change in policy at
LisbonLisbon is the capital and largest city of Portugal. It is also the seat of the district of Lisbon and the main city of the Lisbon region...
. Starting in the early 1950s, the access to basic, secondary and technical education was expanded and its availability was being increasingly opened to both the African indigenes and the ethnic Portuguese of the territories. Education beyond the
primaryA primary school is an institution where children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education. Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational,...
level became available to an increasing number of black Africans since the 1950s, and the proportion of the age group that went on to
secondary schoolSecondary school is a term used to describe an educational institution where the final stage of compulsory schooling, known as secondary education, takes place. It follows on from elementary or primary education....
in the early 1970s was an all-time record high enrolment. Primary school attendance was also growing substantially. In general, the quality of teaching at the primary level was acceptable, even with instruction carried on largely by black Africans who sometimes had substandard qualifications. Most secondary school teachers were ethnically Portuguese, especially in the urban centers. Two state-run university institutions were founded in Portuguese Africa in 1962 by the Portuguese Ministry of the Overseas Provinces headed by
Adriano MoreiraAdriano José Alves Moreira , is a Portuguese statesman, deputy, politician, lawyer and professor...
- the
Estudos Gerais Universitários de Angola in Portuguese Angola and the
Estudos Gerais Universitários de Moçambique in Portuguese Mozambique - awarding a wide range of degrees from
engineeringEngineering is the discipline, art and profession of acquiring and applying technical, scientific and mathematical knowledge to design and implement materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that safely realize a desired objective or inventions.The American Engineers' Council...
to
medicineMedicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
. In the 1960s, the Portuguese mainland had four public universities, two of them in Lisbon (which compares with the 14 Portuguese public universities today). In 1968, the university institution called
Estudos Gerais Universitários de Angola was renamed
Universidade de Luanda (University of Luanda).
See also
- Estado Novo (Portugal)
Estado Novo is the name of the Portuguese authoritarian regime installed in 1933, following the army-led coup d'état of 28 May 1926 against the democratic First Republic. The Estado Novo was developed by António de Oliveira Salazar, ruler of Portugal from 1932 to 1968...
- History of Angola
Angola is a country in southwestern Africa. Portugal explored the region and founded settlements and trading posts. Luanda was founded by Paulo Dias de Novais in the 16th century. The annexed territories in the region were ruled as a colony from 1655, and Angola was incorporated as an overseas...
- 1910s in Angola
In the 1910s in Angola the colonial government transitioned from a monarchy to republican rule following a coup d'état in October 1910. The Portuguese First Republic, the new state, re-abolished slavery.-Slavery:...
- 1920s in Angola
In the 1920s in Angola mining became the primary source of revenue for the colonial government.-Economy:Comphania de Diamantes de Angola, the Diamang diamond company of Angola, was established in 1920. The government maintained a 5% stake in the company, gave it a thirty year lease to mine...
- 1930s in Angola
In the 1930s in Angola the Portuguese colonial government of António de Oliveira Salazar cut spending on colonization, leading to less emigration to Angola and a decline in the population of Portuguese Angolans....
- 1940s in Angola
The 1940s in Angola saw the emergence of the first separatist agitation in the province of Cabinda. By the 1950s Angolan Communists actively campaigned against the Salazar government's control over Angola. Cabindans rallied for independence from Portugal in 1946. The Portuguese colonial authorities...
- 1950s in Angola
Angola in the 1950s transitioned from colonial to provincial status. Angola had the status of a Portuguese colony from 1655 until the Assembly of the Republic passed a law on June 11, 1951, giving all Portuguese colonies provincial status, effective on October 20, 1951...
- 1960s in Angola
The 1960s in Angola were marked by the War of Independence . Portuguese police arrested Agostinho Neto of the MPLA and future President of Angola in 1960 for the third time. Delegates discussed Cabinda's self-determination in relation to Angola at the 4th Commission of the United Nations on...
- 1970s in Angola
The 1970s in Angola, a time of political and military turbulence, saw the end of Angola's War of Independence and the outbreak of civil war . Agostinho Neto, the leader of the MPLA, declared the independence of the People's Republic of Angola on November 11, 1975, in accordance with the Alvor...
- Portuguese East Africa
Portuguese East Africa is the common name by which the Portuguese Empire's territorial expansion in East Africa was known across different periods of time...
- Portuguese Guinea
Portuguese Guinea was the name for what is today Guinea-Bissau from 1446 to September 10, 1974.-History:...