Political culture
Encyclopedia
Political culture is the traditional orientation of the citizens of a nation toward politics, affecting their perceptions of political legitimacy.
Conceptions
In the early 1960s two Americans Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba outlined three pure types of political culture in Great Britain can combine to create' civic culture. These three key features expressed by both men were composed in order to establish the link between the public and the government. The first of these features is Deference which looks at the respect, acknowledgment or inferiority of authority and superiors in society. In the 1950s a prominent example of Deference was a greater amount of approbation or inferiority for the Police service. We know this due to lower levels of crime sixty years ago. In comparison to Deference towards the Police Service today we can notice significant change. The amount of respect has decreased for the service because of higher levels of anti social behaviour in society, notably knife and gun crime. Today some people see the Police as a burden on certain freedoms they wish to exercise and as a result resent there cause of crime watch and defenders of the rule of law, this idea that some people in society adopt can be shown as an area where Deference has broken down in twenty first century Britain. Another key example of Deference in British Political culture is the understanding and positives of the United Kingdom having a Monarchy and not a Republic. This is an understanding that dates far back and has been represented not just as Political Culture, but general culture. Lastly, another area were Deference needs to be mended in the British political culture of 2010 is a resounding distrust in Politicians. In the 1950s large amounts of the public agreed to Partisan alignment with another Political Party and felt a psychological attachment to its views. This resulted in higher numbers of voters at the ballot box and record culmination in the 1950 General Election which saw 84% of the nation voting. From this evidence it is clear that in the past people had heavier trust in Politicians and trust in Politics as a whole. Today many people have lost that sense of belonging to a party and assurance in those who represent their constituency.
The second key feature is Consensus. Consensus represents the key link between government and public agreement and appeasement. The appeasement may not always be shared with the whole nation but as a whole people agree to sustain it, meaning it is a common agreement. There are various Examples of Consensus in British Political culture; How we are governed as a whole, agreement on the welfare state, an agreement to whom the powers governed by head of state go to. A main example can be the common agreement of our Political voting system known as 'first past the post'. Although some groups of people may disagree with its method of selecting an overall winner, it is a system that has been acknowledged and used to determine which party governs our country. Another Consensus is the understanding that our country is conducted centrally from Westminster in London and that they firmly uphold a 'strong government'. The country also acknowledges the fundamental needs of the poor and deprived, with the establishment of a welfare state. In the 1970s many of Britain's primary industries were under nationalization and state ruled. This offered fixed rates for all and an element of Socialist fairness but was seen as lacking general market competition from the capitalistic right wing of British Politics and so in the 1980s under the Conservative Prime minister Margaret Thatcher main industries such as 'British Telecom' and the 'National Railway' were Privatised and sold off to become part of private companies. This idea of privatizing industry was not something which was dominantly agreed upon,(particularly on the left wing of British politics) but it was endorsed and supported for the sake of better contention.
The third features of British Political Culture is Homegenity which emphasizes the point that in the 1950s we were more alike than different. People in general in the 1950s in Britain came under a category of white race, Christian and British heritage, the Monarchy was admired sufficiently more by a larger range of ages, people attended church frequently and the Union Jack flag depicting Great Britain as one, was actively used in International sports matches. Today, Britain is considered a Multicultural society and a 'Dominant Political Culture sharing similar beliefs and policies regarding the welfare state and national health system. Also accepting all races and different ethnic minorities to be part of the countries community. Christianity today amongst white, English families does not play such a crucial role in their lives, and church attendance as a whole is decreasing. Today Britain prefers to depict itself more separately by supporting the individual flags of the home nations of England St Georges Cross, Northern Ireland's Ulster banner, Scotland's St Andrews cross and the Welsh red dragon. This individual and selective support has led to nations within the British Isles such as Scotland and Wales desire independence to become its own state.
that consists of beliefs on how government
al, political
, and economic
life should be carried out. Political cultures create a framework for political change and are unique to nation
s, state
, and other groups. A political culture differs from political ideology
in that people can disagree on an ideology (what government should do) but still share a common political culture. Some ideologies, however, are so critical of the status quo
that they require a fundamental change in the way government is operated, and therefore embody a different political culture as well.
The term political culture was brought into political science to promote the American political system. The concept was used by Gabriel Almond
in late 50s, and outlined in The Civic Culture
(1963, Almond
& Verba
), but was soon opposed by two European political scientists - Gerhard Lehmbruch
and Arend Lijphart
. Lehmbruch analysed politics in Switzerland
and Austria
and Lijphart analysed politics in Netherlands
. Both argued that there are political systems that are more stable than the one in the USA.
s that co-exist within a single particular society. This involves identifying the various cultures within the society other than the dominant culture
. Some of the variables used to define a political culture are its paradigms about government
, economics
and morality
.
There are several distinctions which can be made in identifying political cultures. One distinction is whether it is a belief of the culture that its basic unit is the individual
or the family
. Another distinction is to ask whether the concept of the culture is cooperative
or competitive. Yet another distinction is whether the culture believes the society should be organized hierarchically
or is egalitarian
. Whether reason
or tradition
serves as a justification
, is yet another.
According to William Stewart, all political behavior can be explained as participating in one or more of eight political cultures. They are Anarchism
, Oligarchy
, Tory corporatism
, Fascism
, Classical liberalism
, Radical liberalism, Democratic socialism
, and Leninist socialism. Societies that exemplify each of these cultures have existed historically, however their historical placement is not of primary significance.
's Republic outlined an extreme form of Democratic Socialism.
is just what is necessary for technological progress not resulting in more unemployment
but in easing of the burden of work for all.
and Sidney Verba
outlined three pure types of political culture:
These three 'pure' types of political culture can combine to create the 'civic culture
', which mixes the best elements of each.
, there are different classifications of political culture:
1. classification:
2. classification (of political culture of the elites):
Lijphart also classified structure of the society:
Polarization.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 41:203-26. nyfutdrysetasrdtufyguhigufydtsryaetrsdfguhiigufiyudtsyrtdufyguh
Behavior within Multiple Games” Rationality and Society 19(1):65-97.
Cambridge University Press, 2005. Ch. 2
Conceptions
In the early 1960s two Americans Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba outlined three pure types of political culture in Great Britain can combine to create' civic culture. These three key features expressed by both men were composed in order to establish the link between the public and the government. The first of these features is Deference which looks at the respect, acknowledgment or inferiority of authority and superiors in society. In the 1950s a prominent example of Deference was a greater amount of approbation or inferiority for the Police service. We know this due to lower levels of crime sixty years ago. In comparison to Deference towards the Police Service today we can notice significant change. The amount of respect has decreased for the service because of higher levels of anti social behaviour in society, notably knife and gun crime. Today some people see the Police as a burden on certain freedoms they wish to exercise and as a result resent there cause of crime watch and defenders of the rule of law, this idea that some people in society adopt can be shown as an area where Deference has broken down in twenty first century Britain. Another key example of Deference in British Political culture is the understanding and positives of the United Kingdom having a Monarchy and not a Republic. This is an understanding that dates far back and has been represented not just as Political Culture, but general culture. Lastly, another area were Deference needs to be mended in the British political culture of 2010 is a resounding distrust in Politicians. In the 1950s large amounts of the public agreed to Partisan alignment with another Political Party and felt a psychological attachment to its views. This resulted in higher numbers of voters at the ballot box and record culmination in the 1950 General Election which saw 84% of the nation voting. From this evidence it is clear that in the past people had heavier trust in Politicians and trust in Politics as a whole. Today many people have lost that sense of belonging to a party and assurance in those who represent their constituency.
The second key feature is Consensus. Consensus represents the key link between government and public agreement and appeasement. The appeasement may not always be shared with the whole nation but as a whole people agree to sustain it, meaning it is a common agreement. There are various Examples of Consensus in British Political culture; How we are governed as a whole, agreement on the welfare state, an agreement to whom the powers governed by head of state go to. A main example can be the common agreement of our Political voting system known as 'first past the post'. Although some groups of people may disagree with its method of selecting an overall winner, it is a system that has been acknowledged and used to determine which party governs our country. Another Consensus is the understanding that our country is conducted centrally from Westminster in London and that they firmly uphold a 'strong government'. The country also acknowledges the fundamental needs of the poor and deprived, with the establishment of a welfare state. In the 1970s many of Britain's primary industries were under nationalization and state ruled. This offered fixed rates for all and an element of Socialist fairness but was seen as lacking general market competition from the capitalistic right wing of British Politics and so in the 1980s under the Conservative Prime minister Margaret Thatcher main industries such as 'British Telecom' and the 'National Railway' were Privatised and sold off to become part of private companies. This idea of privatizing industry was not something which was dominantly agreed upon,(particularly on the left wing of British politics) but it was endorsed and supported for the sake of better contention.
The third features of British Political Culture is Homegenity which emphasizes the point that in the 1950s we were more alike than different. People in general in the 1950s in Britain came under a category of white race, Christian and British heritage, the Monarchy was admired sufficiently more by a larger range of ages, people attended church frequently and the Union Jack flag depicting Great Britain as one, was actively used in International sports matches. Today, Britain is considered a Multicultural society and a 'Dominant Political Culture sharing similar beliefs and policies regarding the welfare state and national health system. Also accepting all races and different ethnic minorities to be part of the countries community. Christianity today amongst white, English families does not play such a crucial role in their lives, and church attendance as a whole is decreasing. Today Britain prefers to depict itself more separately by supporting the individual flags of the home nations of England St Georges Cross, Northern Ireland's Ulster banner, Scotland's St Andrews cross and the Welsh red dragon. This individual and selective support has led to nations within the British Isles such as Scotland and Wales desire independence to become its own state.
As political philosophy
Political culture is a distinctive and patterned form of political philosophyPolitical philosophy
Political philosophy is the study of such topics as liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what, if anything, makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it...
that consists of beliefs on how government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
al, political
Politics
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
, and economic
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
life should be carried out. Political cultures create a framework for political change and are unique to nation
Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
s, state
State (polity)
A state is an organized political community, living under a government. States may be sovereign and may enjoy a monopoly on the legal initiation of force and are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union...
, and other groups. A political culture differs from political ideology
Ideology
An ideology is a set of ideas that constitutes one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense and several philosophical tendencies , or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to...
in that people can disagree on an ideology (what government should do) but still share a common political culture. Some ideologies, however, are so critical of the status quo
Status quo
Statu quo, a commonly used form of the original Latin "statu quo" – literally "the state in which" – is a Latin term meaning the current or existing state of affairs. To maintain the status quo is to keep the things the way they presently are...
that they require a fundamental change in the way government is operated, and therefore embody a different political culture as well.
The term political culture was brought into political science to promote the American political system. The concept was used by Gabriel Almond
Gabriel Almond
Gabriel A. Almond was an American political scientist best known for his pioneering work on comparative politics, political development, and political culture.-Biography:...
in late 50s, and outlined in The Civic Culture
The Civic Culture
The Civic Culture or The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations is an influential work in political science by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba....
(1963, Almond
Gabriel Almond
Gabriel A. Almond was an American political scientist best known for his pioneering work on comparative politics, political development, and political culture.-Biography:...
& Verba
Sidney Verba
Sidney Verba is an American political scientist, librarian and library administrator. His academic interests are mainly American and comparative politics. He was the Carl H. Pforzheimer University Professor at Harvard University. He also served Harvard as the director of the Harvard University...
), but was soon opposed by two European political scientists - Gerhard Lehmbruch
Gerhard Lehmbruch
Gerhard Lehmbruch is a member of the University of Konstanz. He is a prominent researcher of Liberal corporatism.-References:...
and Arend Lijphart
Arend Lijphart
Arend d'Angremond Lijphart is a world renowned political scientist specializing in comparative politics, elections and voting systems, democratic institutions, and ethnicity and politics. He received his PhD in Political Science at Yale University in 1963, after studying at the University of...
. Lehmbruch analysed politics in Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
and Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
and Lijphart analysed politics in Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
. Both argued that there are political systems that are more stable than the one in the USA.
As shared paradigms
One way to understand political culture is in terms of the shared paradigmParadigm
The word paradigm has been used in science to describe distinct concepts. It comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" , "pattern, example, sample" from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" , "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from "παρά" , "beside, beyond" + "δείκνυμι" , "to show, to point out".The original Greek...
s that co-exist within a single particular society. This involves identifying the various cultures within the society other than the dominant culture
Dominant culture
The dominant culture in a society refers to the established language, religion, behavior, values, rituals, and social customs. These traits are often the norm for the society as a whole...
. Some of the variables used to define a political culture are its paradigms about government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
, economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
and morality
Morality
Morality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
.
There are several distinctions which can be made in identifying political cultures. One distinction is whether it is a belief of the culture that its basic unit is the individual
Individualism
Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual". Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance while opposing most external interference upon one's own...
or the family
Corporatism
Corporatism, also known as corporativism, is a system of economic, political, or social organization that involves association of the people of society into corporate groups, such as agricultural, business, ethnic, labor, military, patronage, or scientific affiliations, on the basis of common...
. Another distinction is to ask whether the concept of the culture is cooperative
Collectivism
Collectivism is any philosophic, political, economic, mystical or social outlook that emphasizes the interdependence of every human in some collective group and the priority of group goals over individual goals. Collectivists usually focus on community, society, or nation...
or competitive. Yet another distinction is whether the culture believes the society should be organized hierarchically
Hierarchy
A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being "above," "below," or "at the same level as" one another...
or is egalitarian
Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism is a trend of thought that favors equality of some sort among moral agents, whether persons or animals. Emphasis is placed upon the fact that equality contains the idea of equity of quality...
. Whether reason
Reason
Reason is a term that refers to the capacity human beings have to make sense of things, to establish and verify facts, and to change or justify practices, institutions, and beliefs. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, ...
or tradition
Tradition
A tradition is a ritual, belief or object passed down within a society, still maintained in the present, with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes , but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings...
serves as a justification
Justification
Justification may refer to:*Theory of justification, a part of epistemology that attempts to understand the justification of propositions and beliefs*Justification , defence in a prosecution for a criminal offense...
, is yet another.
According to William Stewart, all political behavior can be explained as participating in one or more of eight political cultures. They are Anarchism
Anarchism
Anarchism is generally defined as the political philosophy which holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, or alternatively as opposing authority in the conduct of human relations...
, Oligarchy
Oligarchy
Oligarchy is a form of power structure in which power effectively rests with an elite class distinguished by royalty, wealth, family ties, commercial, and/or military legitimacy...
, Tory corporatism
Tory corporatism
Tory corporatism is a corporatist political culture that is distinct from fascist corporatism in that rather than having a dictatorship impose order through force, the tory corporatist culture is already settled and on-going...
, Fascism
Fascism
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to rejuvenate their nation based on commitment to the national community as an organic entity, in which individuals are bound together in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and blood...
, Classical liberalism
Classical liberalism
Classical liberalism is the philosophy committed to the ideal of limited government, constitutionalism, rule of law, due process, and liberty of individuals including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and free markets....
, Radical liberalism, Democratic socialism
Democratic socialism
Democratic socialism is a description used by various socialist movements and organizations to emphasize the democratic character of their political orientation...
, and Leninist socialism. Societies that exemplify each of these cultures have existed historically, however their historical placement is not of primary significance.
Anarchism
An anarchist political culture only exists in small societies in which there are no strangers. Every person has face to face accountability, and will have to continue to live together. The paradigms about society and the role of the individual are shared strongly among all of its members. In such a society institutions of government are not necessary. Family contacts and their constant reinforcement through personal contact hold the single-culture society together.Tory corporatism
A tory corporatist political culture presumes that responsibility to the group is more important than individual needs and desires. Tradition is the justification of the tory culture. The immediate family connections form its basis. The corporatist culture takes cooperation as far more important than competition.Oligarchy
Oligarchy is a political culture in which elite, ruling class families maintain a monopoly over the legislative, judicial and executive branches of government, thereby removing the decision making process from the population at large.Classical liberalism
The classical liberal political culture is not based on tradition as tory corporatism and oligarchy are. It is based in rationality. It takes the individual as the basic unit of society and is competitive rather than cooperative.Radical liberalism
The radical liberal shares all of the same paradigms as the classical liberal, however it differs in that its hierarchical nature does not apply to its elections, and its competitive nature is more limited.Democratic socialism
The democratic socialist political ideology is based on the belief that the government is ultimately responsible for progressing social and economic equality. Democratic Socialists tend to hold Skinnerian perspectives towards human development and behavior and thus call for government programs to equalize development as much as possible in order to encourage equality and provide equal opportunity to all citizens. Attempts to be more egalitarian. PlatoPlato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
's Republic outlined an extreme form of Democratic Socialism.
Leninist socialism
Communists like other socialists take rationality as the justification for their culture. They believe that the rich lie and perpetuate paradigms which support their own interests. While they reject a social hierarchy, the government itself is rigidly hierarchical. Communists advocate that the social ownership of means of productionMeans of production
Means of production refers to physical, non-human inputs used in production—the factories, machines, and tools used to produce wealth — along with both infrastructural capital and natural capital. This includes the classical factors of production minus financial capital and minus human capital...
is just what is necessary for technological progress not resulting in more unemployment
Unemployment
Unemployment , as defined by the International Labour Organization, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively sought work within the past four weeks...
but in easing of the burden of work for all.
Fascist corporatism
While the tory corporatist culture is established and on-going, the fascist corporatist attempts to create such a culture by force. The tory takes tradition as the legitimate basis of society, while the fascist makes some form of appeal to rationality. The fascist attempts to recreate the conditions of tory corporatism as a response to Leninist socialism.Almond and Verba
According to their level and type of political participation and the nature of people's attitudes toward politics, Gabriel AlmondGabriel Almond
Gabriel A. Almond was an American political scientist best known for his pioneering work on comparative politics, political development, and political culture.-Biography:...
and Sidney Verba
Sidney Verba
Sidney Verba is an American political scientist, librarian and library administrator. His academic interests are mainly American and comparative politics. He was the Carl H. Pforzheimer University Professor at Harvard University. He also served Harvard as the director of the Harvard University...
outlined three pure types of political culture:
- ParochialParochial political cultureA Parochial political culture is a political culture where citizens have only limited awareness of the existence of central government....
- Where citizens are only remotely aware of the presence of central government, and live their lives near enough regardless of the decisions taken by the state. Distant and unaware of political phenomena. He has neither knowledge or interest in politics. In general congruent with a traditional political structure. - Subject - Where citizens are aware of central government, and are heavily subjected to its decisions with little scope for dissent. The individual is aware of politics, its actors and institutions. It is affectively oriented towards politics, yet he is on the "downward flow" side of the politics. In general congruent with a centralized authoritarian structure.
- Participant - Citizens are able to influence the government in various ways and they are affected by it. The individual is oriented toward the system as a whole, to both the political and administrative structures and processes (to both the input and output aspects). In general congruent with a democratic political structure.
These three 'pure' types of political culture can combine to create the 'civic culture
Civic culture
A civic culture or civic political culture is a political culture characterised by "acceptance of the authority of the state" and "a belief in participation in civic duties". The term was first used in Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba's book, The Civic Culture...
', which mixes the best elements of each.
Lijphart
By Arend LijphartArend Lijphart
Arend d'Angremond Lijphart is a world renowned political scientist specializing in comparative politics, elections and voting systems, democratic institutions, and ethnicity and politics. He received his PhD in Political Science at Yale University in 1963, after studying at the University of...
, there are different classifications of political culture:
1. classification:
- Political culture of masses
- Political culture of the eliteEliteElite refers to an exceptional or privileged group that wields considerable power within its sphere of influence...
(s)
2. classification (of political culture of the elites):
- coalitional
- contradictive
Lijphart also classified structure of the society:
- homogeneous
- heterogeneous
| Structure of society (right) | homogeneous | heterogeneous |
|---|---|---|
| Political culture of elites (down) |
||
| coalitional | depoliticalised democracy | consociative democracy |
| contradictive | centripetal democracy | centrifugal democracy |
See also
- Political culture of the United States of America
- Political culture of CanadaPolitical culture of CanadaCanadian political culture is in some ways part of a greater North American and European political culture, which emphasizes constitutional law, freedom of religion, personal liberty, and regional autonomy; these ideas stemming in various degrees from the British common law and French civil law...
- Political culture of GermanyPolitical culture of GermanyThe political culture of Germany as of the early 21st century is known for the popular expectation for governments to ensure a degree of social welfare, business and labour corporatism and a multiparty system dominated by conservative and social democratic forces, with a strong influence of smaller...
- Political culture of the United KingdomPolitical culture of the United KingdomThe political culture of the United Kingdom has been described by the political scientists Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba as a deferential civic culture...
Further reading
- Almond, Gabriel A., Verba, Sidney The Civic Culture. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1965.
- Aronoff, Myron J. “Political Culture,” in International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes, eds., (Oxford: Elsevier, 2002), 11640.
- Axelrod, Robert. 1997. “The Dissemination of Culture: A Model with Local Convergence and Global
Polarization.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 41:203-26. nyfutdrysetasrdtufyguhigufydtsryaetrsdfguhiigufiyudtsyrtdufyguh
- Barzilai, Gad. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.
- Bednar, Jenna and Scott Page. 2007. “Can Game(s) Theory Explain Culture? The Emergence of Cultural
Behavior within Multiple Games” Rationality and Society 19(1):65-97.
-
- Clark, William, Matt Golder, and Sona Golder. 2009. Principles of Comparative Government. CQ Press. Ch. 7
- Diamond, Larry (ed.) Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries.
- Greif, Avner. 1994. “Cultural Beliefs and the Organization of Society: A Historical and Theoretical Reflection on Collectivist and Individualist Societies.” The Journal of Political Economy 102(5): 912-950.
- Kertzer, David I. Politics and Symbols. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996.
- Kertzer, David I. Ritual, Politics, and Power. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988.
- Kubik, Jan. The Power of Symbols Against The Symbols of Power. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994.
- Inglehart, Ronald and Christian Welzel, Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2005. Ch. 2
- Laitin, David D. Hegemony and Culture. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1986.
- Igor LukšičIgor LukšičIgor Lukšič is a Slovene politologist and politician.Lukšič obtained his PhD at the University of Ljubljana in 1993. He started his academic career as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana in 1986...
, Politična kultura. Ljubljana: The University of Ljubljana, 2006. - Wilson, Richard W. "The Many Voices of Political Culture: Assessing Different Approaches," in World Politics 52 (January 2000), 246-73