Polish Autonomous Districts (called in Russian "полрайоны",
polraiony, an abbreviation for "польские районы", "Polish
raionA raion is a type of administrative unit of some post-Soviet states. The term, which is from French rayon 'honeycomb, department,' describes both a type of a subnational entity and a division of a city, and is almost always translated as "district"...
s") were autonomous raions in the interbellum period in the Ukrainian and Byelorussian
Soviet Socialist RepublicsThe Republics of the Soviet Union or the Union Republics of the Soviet Union were ethnically based administrative units that were subordinated directly to the Government of the Soviet Union...
of the
USSRThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
. They were created in an attempt to live up to the postulate of the
LeninismLeninism is the theory and practice of the dictatorship of the proletariat, led by a revolutionary vanguard party. Theoretically, Leninism comprises the political and economic communist theories of Vladimir Lenin, developed from Marxism, that were the establishing ideology of Soviet communism — in...
about the rights of nations for
self-determinationSelf-determination is defined as free choice of one’s own acts without external compulsion; and especially as the freedom of the people of a given territory to determine their own political status. In other words, it is the right of the people of a nation to decide how they want to be governed...
. Also, creation of these regions served one of purposes of the Bolsheviks - to export the revolution, since after their defeat in the
Polish-Soviet WarThe Polish–Soviet War was an armed conflict between Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine against the Second Polish Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic, four states in post-World War I Europe. The war was the result of the belligerents' desire to expand their territories and their influence...
, the Soviets did not give up their idea of creating a Soviet Republic in
PolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe . Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
.
Polish Autonomous Districts (called in Russian "полрайоны",
polraiony, an abbreviation for "польские районы", "Polish
raionA raion is a type of administrative unit of some post-Soviet states. The term, which is from French rayon 'honeycomb, department,' describes both a type of a subnational entity and a division of a city, and is almost always translated as "district"...
s") were autonomous raions in the interbellum period in the Ukrainian and Byelorussian
Soviet Socialist RepublicsThe Republics of the Soviet Union or the Union Republics of the Soviet Union were ethnically based administrative units that were subordinated directly to the Government of the Soviet Union...
of the
USSRThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
. They were created in an attempt to live up to the postulate of the
LeninismLeninism is the theory and practice of the dictatorship of the proletariat, led by a revolutionary vanguard party. Theoretically, Leninism comprises the political and economic communist theories of Vladimir Lenin, developed from Marxism, that were the establishing ideology of Soviet communism — in...
about the rights of nations for
self-determinationSelf-determination is defined as free choice of one’s own acts without external compulsion; and especially as the freedom of the people of a given territory to determine their own political status. In other words, it is the right of the people of a nation to decide how they want to be governed...
. Also, creation of these regions served one of purposes of the Bolsheviks - to export the revolution, since after their defeat in the
Polish-Soviet WarThe Polish–Soviet War was an armed conflict between Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine against the Second Polish Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic, four states in post-World War I Europe. The war was the result of the belligerents' desire to expand their territories and their influence...
, the Soviets did not give up their idea of creating a Soviet Republic in
PolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe . Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
. Polish Autonomous Districts were supposed to be the origin of future Soviet Poland, however, they both were disbanded in mid-1930s, and its population was expelled to Kazakhstan, with many of them killed during the
Great PurgeGreat Purge was a series of campaigns of political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union orchestrated by Joseph Stalin in 1937–1938. It involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and Government officials, repression of peasants, Red Army leadership, and the persecution of...
.
Origins
First ideas of granting autonomy to Polish-populated areas of the Soviet Union were created during the Polish-Soviet war, however, they did not plan to create whole districts, but rather granting autonomy to separate villages. In 1925 it was decided that a district would be created in
Soviet UkraineThe Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic or the Ukrainian SSR was one of the founders of the Soviet Union constituent republic that made up the former Soviet Union from its formation in 1922 to its abolition in 1991.-Name:...
, where, according to the 1926 survey, 476.435 Poles lived. They made 1.6% of Ukrainian population, but in the Zhitomir Oblast, their number reached 10%. Among persons, who supported the district, were Soviet communists of Polish origin, such as
Feliks KonFeliks Yakovlevich Kon was a Polish communist activist.-Career:Born in Warsaw, Kon's mother was Georgian and was brought up in Russia. He was trained as a historian and a journalist, but was involved in politics...
,
Julian MarchlewskiJulian Baltazar Marchlewski was a Polish socialist and later communist functionary. He was also known under the aliases Karski and Kujawiak....
, Feliks Dzierżyński and
Tomasz DąbalTomasz Dąbal was a Polish communist activist.Member of the Polish Legions in World War I, founder of the Republic of Tarnobrzeg, politician in the PSL, deputy to Polish Sejm , he eventually joined the Polish Communist Party , for which in 1921 he was accused of subversive activities, stricken of...
. Thus, Marchlewszczyzna, a later Dzierżyńszczyzna, were created.
Marchlewszczyzna
Marchlewszczyzna was the
Polish Autonomous District in Ukraine created on 22 March 1925, in eastern Volynia, 100 km west of
ZhytomyrZhytomyr is a historic city in the North of the western half of Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Zhytomyr Oblast , as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Zhytomyr Rayon...
, with capital at the town of
Marchlewsk (known before and after as
Dołbysz or
Dowbysz, presently Довбиш -
DovbyshDovbysh is a town in Baranivka Raion, Zhytomyr Oblast, Ukraine. The population is 4,750 as of 2009....
in Ukraine), located some 120 kilometers from eastern border of the
Second Polish RepublicThe Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; from the creation of an independent Polish state in the aftermath of World War I, to the invasion of Poland in 1939 by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Slovak Republic,...
. It was named after a Polish
bolshevikThe Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903...
Julian MarchlewskiJulian Baltazar Marchlewski was a Polish socialist and later communist functionary. He was also known under the aliases Karski and Kujawiak....
, who dreamed about Poland becoming part of the Soviet Union.
In initial years of the district's existence, local Poles enjoyed limited autonomy, with 55 Polish-language schools, 80 reading rooms and a Polish daily
Marchlewszczyzna Radziecka (
Soviet Marchlewszczyzna). At the same time, its inhabitants were subject to intense communist propaganda. Polish grammar rules, regarded as
bourgeoisie, were changed, however, the district lacked educated people. Majority of its inhabitants were Polish peasants, faithful Roman-Catholics, who were not interested in communism and its slogans. Therefore, such persons as
Tomasz DąbalTomasz Dąbal was a Polish communist activist.Member of the Polish Legions in World War I, founder of the Republic of Tarnobrzeg, politician in the PSL, deputy to Polish Sejm , he eventually joined the Polish Communist Party , for which in 1921 he was accused of subversive activities, stricken of...
, were brought there and their task was to indoctrinate the locals and raise them in atheist way. An organization, named
Polish Anticatholic Section was founded, but all efforts were fruitless, as the Poles did not give up their faith.
Soviet authorities, which wanted to create Polish laborers, future citizens of Polish Soviet Republic, built there several factories as well as power plants and telephone lines. This also brought about improvement in the quality of life, but all efforts were destroyed in early 1930s, when collectivization began. Polish peasants opposed it fiercely, and thousands of them perished in the
HolodomorThe Holodomor refers to the famine of 1932–1933 in the Ukrainian SSR during which millions of people were starved to death due to Soviet policies. There were no natural causes for starvation and in fact, Ukraine - unlike other Soviet Republics - enjoyed a bumper wheat crop in 1932...
.
Initially, ethnic Poles made around 70% of district's population, which in 1926 totalled around 41,000. Other inhabitants were Ukrainians (20%), Germans (7%) and Jews. In 1930, after several adjacent villages were added to Marchlewszczyzna, the population grew to 52.000, with Poles still making 70%. It has been estimated that the district consisted of around 100 villages, settlements and smaller towns.
Dzierżyńszczyzna
Dzierżyńszczyzna was a
Polish Autonomous District in Belarus, near
MinskMinsk is the capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers. Minsk is also a headquarters of the Commonwealth of Independent States . As the national capital, Minsk has a special administrative status in Belarus and is also the administrative centre of Minsk...
and close to the Soviet-Polish border of the time. It was created on March 15, 1932, with the capital at Dzierżyńsk (
DzyarzhynskDzyarzhynsk or Dzerzhinsk; formerly "Koidanova" , in the Stoubcy district of Belarus, is a city with a history dating to the 11th century.-1st century–17th century:...
, Dzerzhynsk, formerly known as
Kojdanava ). It was named after the
bolshevikThe Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903...
Felix Dzerzhinsky.
Similarly to Marchlewszczyzna, limited Polish autonomy in the area was a real fact, with Polish-language schools, libraries and institutions. At the same time, however, the inhabitants were subject to intensive communist propaganda. Religious life was suppressed, and the campaign of collecivization, carried out in mid-1930s, met resistance of local Polish peasants. Unlike Marchlewszczyzna, which was the real center of Polish cultural life in the Soviet Union, Dzierżyńszczyzna did not gain such status and its influence was limited.
Disbanding
Polish districts were among those which resisted Soviet collectivization and
atheizationAtheism can be either the rejection of theism,or the position that deities do not exist.In the broadest sense, it is the absence of belief in the existence of deities....
. For political reasons, drastic measures were initially not applied in these areas. Eventually, Marchlewszczyzna was disbanded in 1935 at the onset of the
Great PurgeGreat Purge was a series of campaigns of political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union orchestrated by Joseph Stalin in 1937–1938. It involved a large-scale purge of the Communist Party and Government officials, repression of peasants, Red Army leadership, and the persecution of...
and most of their administration was executed. In the following years, many men were shot (some sources, such as Russian organization
Memorial"Memorial" is an international historical and civil rights society that operates in a number of post-Soviet states. It focuses on recording and publicising the Soviet Union's totalitarian past, but also monitors human rights in post-Soviet states at the present time, for example in...
put the number of the murdered Poles at 111 091), women and children deported to Kazakhstan and other remote areas of the Soviet Union. More than 50,000 Poles were executed in places like
KurapatyKurapaty is a wooded area on the outskirts of Minsk, Belarus, in which a vast number of people were executed between 1937 and 1941 by the Soviet secret police, the NKVD...
or Vinnitsa, many others were executed or starved in Kazakhstan. Dzierżyńszczyzna existed three years longer; it was disbanded in 1938. According to Polish sources, up to 70 000 Poles from Soviet Ukraine were forcibly resettled in Kazakhstan in late 1930s. Also, around 20 000 Poles were then deported from Soviet Belarus .
Reasons for disbanding the districts are still unknown. In mid-1930s, a campaign of mass repressions of ethnic groups of the Soviet Union was started. There are also speculations that Poles' rejection of collectivization and their loyalty to the
Roman Catholic ChurchThe Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church. With more than a billion members, over half of all Christians and more than one-sixth of the world's population, the Catholic Church is a communion of the Western, or Latin Rite Church, and...
convinced Soviet officials that the idea of creating future Polish Soviet Socialist Republic would not work out. All Polish schools and libraries were closed, Tomasz Dąbal was executed in 1936 and territories of both districts were divided between neighboring
raions.
After
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, in both Polish and Soviet
historiographiesHistoriography is the history of history, the aspect of history and of semiotics that considers how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted...
, the existence of the districts was omitted, perhaps because the authorities of both countries wanted to avoid uneasy questions about sudden rejection of the Leninist postulate about the rights of nations for
self-determinationSelf-determination is defined as free choice of one’s own acts without external compulsion; and especially as the freedom of the people of a given territory to determine their own political status. In other words, it is the right of the people of a nation to decide how they want to be governed...
.
The area of Marchlewszczyzna is still inhabited by the Polish minority, in the town of Dovbysh they make half of population. There are also Poles in Dzierżyńszczyzna.
Sources
- Mikolaj Iwanow, Pierwszy naród ukarany. Polacy w Związku Radzieckim 1921-1939 (The first nation to be punished: Poles in the USSR, 1921-1939), Warsaw-Wroclaw. Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. 1991. ISBN 83-01-10537-2
See also
- Polish operation of the NKVD
Polish operation of the NKVD refers to the coordinated actions of the NKVD in 1937-1938, done according to NKVD Order № 00485 "О ликвидации польских диверсионно-шпионских групп и организаций ПОВ" .The order was approved on August 9, 1937 by the VKP Central Committee Politburo, and was signed by...
- Population transfer in the Soviet Union
Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be classified into the following broad categories: deportations of "anti-Soviet" categories of population, often classified as "enemies of workers", deportations of nationalities, labor force transfer, and organized migrations in opposite directions to...