The
Plagues of Egypt , the
Biblical Plagues or the
Ten Plagues are the ten calamities imposed upon
EgyptAncient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and...
by
GodIn Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title. It represents the Jewish conception of the divine nature, and of the relation of God to the Jewish people...
in the
BibleThe Bible contains the central religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. Modern Judaism generally recognizes a single set of canonical books known as the Tanakh, or Hebrew Bible, as it is written almost entirely in the Hebrew language, with some small portions in Aramaic...
(as recounted in the Book of Exodus, Chapters 7–12), to convince
PharaohThe Pharaoh of the Exodus is the pharaoh who ruled over ancient Egypt at the time of the Exodus. More precisely, it is the question of who this pharaoh might have been....
to let the poorly treated
IsraeliteIn the Bible, the Israelites were the descendants of the Biblical patriarch Jacob. They were divided into twelve tribes, each descended from one of twelve sons or grandsons of Jacob....
slaves go. The Plagues of Egypt are recognized by Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
The Biblical narrative
The plagues as they appear in the Bible are:
- (Exodus 7:14–25) rivers and other water sources turned to blood killing all fish and other water life. (Dam)
- (Exodus 8:1–8:15) amphibians (commonly believed to be frogs) (Tsfardeia)
- (Exodus 8:16–19) lice or gnat
A gnat is one of several species of tiny flying insects in the Dipterid suborder Nematocera, especially those in the families Mycetophilidae, Anisopodidae and Sciaridae....
s (Kinim)
- (Exodus 8:20–30) beasts or flies (Arov)
- (Exodus 9:1–7) disease
A disease or medical condition isan abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions, associated with specific symptoms and signs...
on livestock (Dever)
- (Exodus 9:8–12) unhealable boil
Boil is a skin disease caused by the infection of hair follicles, resulting in the localized accumulation of pus and dead tissue. Individual boils can cluster together and form an interconnected network of boils called carbuncles....
s (Shkhin)
- (Exodus 9:13–35) hail
Hail is a form of solid precipitation which consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, that are individually called hail stones. Hail stones on Earth consist mostly of water ice and measure between 5 and 150 millimeters in diameter, with the larger stones coming from severe and dangerous...
mixed with fireFire is the rapid oxidation of a combustible material releasing heat, light, and various reaction products such as carbon dioxide and water. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the...
(Barad)
- (Exodus 10:1–20) locust
Locust is the swarming phase of short-horned grasshoppers of the family Acrididae. The origin and apparent extinction of certain species of locust—some of which reached 6 inches in length—are unclear....
s (Arbeh)
- (Exodus 10:21–29) darkness
Darkness is the absence of light. Scientifically it is only possible to have a reduced amount of light. The emotional response to an absence of light has inspired metaphor in literature, symbolism in art, and emphasis....
(Choshech)
- (Exodus 11:1–12:36) death
Death is the termination of the biological functions that define a living organism. It refers to both a particular event and to the condition that results thereby. The true nature of the latter has for millennia been a central concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical...
of the first-born of all Egyptian families. (Makat #also death of every camel.Bechorot)
The first three plagues seemed to affect "all the land of Egypt" Ex. 7:21, 8:2, 8:16, while the 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 9th did not affect the children of Israel (Ex. 8:22, 9:4,11,26, 10:23). 8th is unclear. For the last plague the Torah indicates that they were only spared from the final plague by
sacrificingKorban , in Judaism, is the term for a variety of sacrificial offerings described and commanded in the Torah. Such sacrifices were offered in a variety of settings by the ancient Israelites, and later by the Jewish priesthood, the Kohanim, at the Temple in Jerusalem...
the
Paschal lambPaschal Lamb can refer to:*Korban Pesach, in Judaism*Lamb of God, in Christianity...
, marking their doorpost with the lamb's blood, and eating the roasted sacrifice together with
MatzoMatza is a cracker-like flatbread made of white plain flour and water. The dough is pricked in several places and not allowed to rise before or during baking, thereby producing a hard, flat bread...
t (לחם עוני) in a celebratory feast. The
TorahThe term "Torah" , refers either to the Five Books of Moses or to the entirety of Judaism's founding legal and ethical religious texts...
describes the
Angel of DeathAngel of Death may refer to:In religion:* Death , death personified as an angel in Abrahamic religion.** St. Gabriel, an archangel...
as actually passing through Egypt to kill all firstborn, but passing over (hence "Passover") houses which have the sign of lambs' blood on the doorpost. It was this plague which resulted in Pharaoh finally relenting, and sending the Israelites away at whatever terms they wished.
The Torah also relates God's instructions to
MosesMoses was, according to biblical texts, a religious leader, lawgiver, and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbeinu in Hebrew Moses was, according to biblical texts, a...
that the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt must be celebrated early on the holiday of
PassoverPassover is a Jewish and Samaritan holy day and festival commemorating the Hebrews' escape from enslavement in Egypt....
("
Pesach" פסח); the rituals observed on Passover recall the events surrounding the exodus from Egypt. The Torah additionally cites God's sparing of the Israelite firstborn as a rationale for the commandment of the
redemption of the firstbornPidyon HaBen, , is a ritual in Judaism whereby a firstborn son is redeemed from a Kohen.-Biblical references:...
(Exodus 13:11–16). This event is also commemorated by the
fast of the firstbornFast of the Firstborn ; is a unique fast day in Judaism which usually falls on the day before Passover...
on the day preceding Passover but which is traditionally not observed because a
siyumA siyum means the completion of any unit of Torah study, or book of the Mishnah or Talmud in Judaism. A siyum is usually followed by a celebratory meal, or seudat mitzvah, a meal in honor of a mitzvah, or commandment...
celebration is held which obviates the need for a fast.
The plagues
The following is a summary of the Biblical account of the plagues which is found in chapters 7–12 of Exodus.
The beginning of the curses (Ex. 5:1–5:9, 7:8–7:13)
Moses and Aaron approached the Pharaoh, and to deliver God's demand that the Israelite slaves be allowed to leave Egypt so that they could worship God freely. After an initial refusal by the Pharaoh, God sent Moses and Aaron back to show him a miraculous sign of warning – Aaron's staff turned into a serpent. Pharaoh's
sorcerersJannes and Jambres, or sometimes Johanai and Mamre, or Iannes and Mambres, are names given to the magicians who contended with Moses and Aaron and were discomfited by the Hebrew leaders in the Hebrew Bible Book of Exodus. These names were not given in the book of Exodus itself, but they appear in...
also turned their staffs into snakes, but Aaron's then proceeded to swallow theirs before turning back into a staff.
Blood (Ex. 7:14–7:25) דָם
The first plague was
bloodBlood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells — such as nutrients and oxygen — and transports waste products away from those same cells....
. God instructed Moses to tell Aaron to raise his
staffAaron's rod refers to any of the staffs carried by Moses' brother, Aaron, in the Old Testament of the Bible. The Bible tells how, along with Moses' rod, Aaron's rod was endowed with miraculous power during the Plagues of Egypt which preceded the Exodus...
over the river
NileThe Nile is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world....
; all of its water turned into
bloodBlood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells — such as nutrients and oxygen — and transports waste products away from those same cells....
. As a result of the blood, the fish of the Nile died, filling Egypt with an awful stench. Other water resources used by the
EgyptiansEgyptians is the name of the nationality and Mediterranean North African ethnic group native to Egypt....
were turned to blood as well (7:19). Pharaoh's sorcerers demonstrated that they too could turn water into blood, and Pharaoh therefore made no concession to Moses' demands.
Frogs (Ex. 7:25–8:11) צְּפַרְדֵּעַ
The second plague of Egypt was
frogFrogs are amphibians in the order Anura , formerly referred to as Salientia . Most frogs are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits , protruding eyes and the absence of a tail...
s. God commanded Moses to tell Aaron to stretch his staff over the water, and hordes of frogs came and overran Egypt. Pharaoh's sorcerers were also able to duplicate this plague with their magic. However, since they were unable to remove it, Pharaoh was forced to grant permission for the Israelites to leave so that Moses would agree to remove the frogs. To prove that the plague was actually a divine punishment, Moses let Pharaoh choose the time that it would end. Pharaoh chose the following day, and all the frogs died the next day. Nevertheless, Pharaoh rescinded his permission, and the Israelites stayed in Egypt.
Gnats (Ex. 8:16–8:19) כִנִּים
The third plague of Egypt was gnats. God instructed Moses to tell Aaron to take his staff and strike at the dust, which turned into a mass of gnats that the Egyptians could not get rid of. The Egyptian sorcerers declared that this act was "the finger of god" since they were unable to reproduce its effects with their magic. This plague killed the most people by far. bugs covered bodies in everyplace that you could not even touch.
Wild animals (Ex. 8:20–8:32) עָרוֹב
The fourth plague of Egypt was
wild animalsWild Animals is Korean director Kim Ki-duk's second film, released in 1996. It is a crime-drama film set in Paris, and stars Jae-hyeon Jo, Dong-jik Jang and Ryun Jang.- Cast :...
, capable of harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes that the
arov (
swarmSwarm describes a behaviour of an aggregate of animals of similar size and body orientation, often moving en mass in the same direction. "Swarming" is a general term that can be applied to any animal that swarms. The term can be applied to insects, birds, fish, various microorganisms such as...
) only came against the Egyptians, and that it did not affect the
Land of GoshenThe Land of Goshen is a place-name mentioned in the biblical story of Joseph. The Septuagint renders the name as Gesan , and Artapanus in Alexandria as Kessan ....
(where the Israelites lived). Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to allow the Israelites' freedom. However, after the plague was gone, Pharaoh "hardened his heart" and again refused to keep his promise.
The word עָרוֹב has caused a difference of opinion among traditional interpreters. The root meaning is related to mixing. While most traditional interpreters understand the plague as 'wild animals', Gesenius along with many modern interpreters understand the plague as a swarm of flies.
Pestilence (Ex. 9:1–9:7) דֶּבֶר
The fifth plague of Egypt was an
epidemic diseaseDefining an epidemic can be subjective, depending in part on what is "expected". An epidemic may be restricted to one locale , more general or even global...
which exterminated the Egyptian
livestockLivestock are one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food or fiber, or labor...
; that is, horses, donkeys, camels, cattle, sheep and goats. The Israelites' cattle were unharmed. Once again, Pharaoh made no concessions.
Incurable boils (Ex. 9:8–9:12) שְׁחִין
The sixth plague of Egypt was
Shkhin. The
Shkhin was a kind of skin disease, usually translated as "boils". God commanded Moses and Aaron to each take two handfuls of soot from a furnace, which Moses scattered skyward in Pharaoh's presence. The soot induced festering
Shkhin eruptions on Egyptian people and livestock. The Egyptian sorcerers were afflicted along with everyone else, and were unable to heal themselves, much less the rest of Egypt.
Hail (Ex. 9:13–9:35) בָּרָד
The seventh plague of Egypt was a destructive
stormA storm is any disturbed state of an astronomical body's atmosphere, especially affecting its surface, and strongly implying severe weather...
. God commanded Moses to stretch his staff skyward, at which point the storm commenced. It was even more evidently supernatural than the previous plagues, a powerful shower of
hailHail is a form of solid precipitation which consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, that are individually called hail stones. Hail stones on Earth consist mostly of water ice and measure between 5 and 150 millimeters in diameter, with the larger stones coming from severe and dangerous...
intermixed with
fireFire is the rapid oxidation of a combustible material releasing heat, light, and various reaction products such as carbon dioxide and water. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the...
. The storm heavily damaged Egyptian
orchardAn orchard is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit or nut-producing trees grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of large gardens, where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive purpose...
s and
cropsAgriculture is the production of food and goods through farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and...
, as well as people and livestock. The storm struck all of Egypt except for the Land of Goshen. Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to allow the Israelites to worship God in the desert, saying "This time I have sinned; God is righteous, I and my people are wicked." As a show of God's mastery over the world, the hail stopped as soon as Moses began praying to God. However, after the storm ceased, Pharaoh again "hardened his heart" and refused to keep his promise.
Locusts (Ex. 10:1–10:20) אַרְבֶּה
The eighth plague of Egypt was locusts. Before the plague, God informed Moses that from that point on He would "harden Pharaoh's heart," (as promised earlier in 4:21) so that Pharaoh would not give in, and the remaining miracles (the final plagues and the
splitting of the seaCrossing the Red Sea is the Biblical account of the crossing of the Red Sea by Moses and the Israelites in their flight from the pursuing Egyptian army and is a part of the Exodus narrative on their journey out of Egypt, found in the Book of Exodus, chapters 13:17 to 15:21.According to the Book of...
) would play out.
As with previous plagues, Moses came to Pharaoh and warned him of the impending plague of locusts. Pharaoh's officials begged him to let the Israelites go rather than suffer the devastating effects of a locust-swarm, but he was still unwilling to give in. He proposed a compromise: the Israelite men would be allowed to go, while women, children and livestock would remain in Egypt. Moses repeated God's demand that every last person and animal should go, but Pharaoh refused.
God then had Moses stretch his staff over Egypt, and a wind picked up from the east. The wind continued until the following day, when it brought a locust swarm. The swarm covered the sky, casting a shadow over Egypt. It consumed all the remaining Egyptian crops, leaving no tree or plant standing. Pharaoh again asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to allow all the Israelites to worship God in the desert. As promised, God hardened Pharaoh's heart, and he did not allow the Israelites to leave.
Darkness (Ex. 10:21–10:29) חוֹשֶך
In the ninth plague, God commanded Moses to stretch his hands up to the sky, to bring darkness upon Egypt. This darkness was so heavy that an Egyptian could physically feel it. It lasted for three days, during which time there was light in the homes of the Israelites. Pharaoh then called to Moses and offered to let all the Israelites leave, if only the darkness would be removed from his land. However, he required that their sheep and cattle stay. Moses refused, and went on to say that before long, Pharaoh himself would offer to provide animals for sacrifice. Pharaoh, outraged, then threatened to execute Moses if he should again appear before Pharaoh. Moses replied that he would indeed not visit the Pharaoh again.
This plague was an attack aimed directly at Pharaoh's deity
RaRA is an abbreviation or code which may refer to :Science* Right ascension, an astronomical term for one of the two coordinates of a point on the celestial sphere when using the equatorial coordinate system...
, the Egyptian sun god. By introducing the plague of darkness, Moses attempted to demonstrate the futility of faith in Egyptian gods.
Death of the Firstborn (Ex. 11:1–12:36) מַכַּת בְּכוֹרוֹת
The tenth and final plague of Egypt was the
deathDeath is the termination of the biological functions that define a living organism. It refers to both a particular event and to the condition that results thereby. The true nature of the latter has for millennia been a central concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical...
of all Egyptian first born — no one escaped, from the lowest servant to Pharaoh's own first-born son, including first-born of livestock. Before the plague, God commanded Moses to inform all the Israelites to mark
lambDomestic sheep are quadrupedal, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Although the name "sheep" applies to many species, in everyday usage it almost always refers to Ovis aries...
's blood on the doorposts on every door in which case the LORD (Yahweh in Hebrew, not the
angel of deathAngel of Death may refer to:In religion:* Death , death personified as an angel in Abrahamic religion.** St. Gabriel, an archangel...
as is commonly thought - see Exodus 12:12-13) will pass over them, thus sparing all the Israelite first-borns. This was the hardest blow upon Egypt and the plague that finally convinced Pharaoh to submit, and let the Israelites go.
After this, Pharaoh, furious and saddened, ordered the Israelites to go away, taking whatever they wanted. The Israelites didn't hesitate; and at the end of that night Moses led them out of Egypt with "arms upraised."
Context
Although the main reason for the plagues appears to be Pharaoh's repeated refusal to release the Israelites from slavery, according to the Torah, God hardened Pharaoh's heart so he would be strong enough to persist in his unwillingness to release the people, so that
God could manifest his great power and cause it to be declared among the nationsWith a strong hand and an outstretched arm is a phrase in Judaic tradition representing God's use of his power on behalf of the Jews.-Origin:...
(Ex. 9:14, 16), so that other people would discuss it for generations afterward (Jos. 2:9–11; 9:9; Isa. 4:8; 6:6). In this view, the plagues were punishment for the Egyptians' long abuse of the Israelites, as well as proof that the gods of Egypt were powerless, indeed nonexistent. (Ex. 12:12; Nu. 33:4). If God triumphed over the gods of Egypt, a world power at that time, then the people of God would be strengthened in their faith, although they are a small people, and would not be tempted to follow the deities that God put to shame.
Traditional views
One of the noticeable features of the tales is that there appears to be an underlying pattern, the third, sixth and ninth plagues come without warning, and many biblical commentators see there as being three sets of three plagues each. Attempts to draw parallels between each have had limited success, and are somewhat disputed. Some point to Rabbi Yehuda (quoted in the
Haggadah of PesachThe Haggadah is a Jewish religious text that sets out the order of the Passover Seder. Reading the Haggadah is a fulfillment of the scriptural commandment to each Jew to "tell your son" about the Jewish liberation from slavery in Egypt as described in the Book of Exodus in the Torah...
) who implied this idea by grouping the first three, middle three and last four together with the mnemonics DE.ZA.KH. A.DA.SH. BA.A.HA.V.
Another significant feature is that some plagues, but not others, are instigated by Aaron, rather than Moses. Many critical religious commentaries resolve this situation by saying that due to the principle of
Ha-karat ha-tov, Moses was obliged to appreciate the help he received earlier from the Nile, as a baby (Exodus 2:1-10), and the dust, when he murdered a guard in his youth, (Exodus 2:11–12) and was therefore unable to
smite either of these.
Non-traditional views
According to the
documentary hypothesisThe documentary hypothesis , holds that the Pentateuch was derived from originally independent, parallel and complete narratives, which were subsequently combined into the current form by a series of redactors...
, the plagues of boils, and of lice, are merely the
Priestly sourceThe Priestly Source is posited as the most recent of the four chief sources of the Torah, as postulated by the long-established "standard" Wellhausen formulation of the Documentary Hypothesis . It is seen as the work of an Aaronid priest and as such reflects, among other characteristics...
's version of
JEJE is a hypothetical intermediate source text of the Torah postulated by the DH. It is a combination and redaction of the Jahwist and Elohist source texts. According to this hypothesis, J was composed c. 950 BC, E was composed c. 850 BC, and the two were combined into JE c. 750 BC. JE was...
's plagues of pestilence, and of flies. The
TorahThe term "Torah" , refers either to the Five Books of Moses or to the entirety of Judaism's founding legal and ethical religious texts...
is thus seen as only gaining 10 plagues when both these versions were merged together, and thus treated as separate plagues. Similar merging also allegedly explains the pattern where the third, sixth and ninth plague, come without warning, as originating from different sources to the one in which warning is provided. Likewise, in this hypothesis, one source presents Aaron as carrying out the plague, one presents Moses as their origin, and one presents God as the explicit origin, and since the plagues they each describe do not completely overlap, this provides an explanation for why Moses carries out some plagues, but Aaron carries out others. The hypothesis also breaks the account of the plagues down further.
In an historical context, the greatest candidate for the Israelite presence in Egypt is that of the
HyksosbfThe Hyksos were an Asiatic people who invaded the eastern Nile Delta, in the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt initiating the Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt...
. However, rather than being slaves who escaped, the Hyksos were rulers who were chased out of Egypt. The extreme resistance, in the story, of the unnamed Pharaoh to releasing them therefore, according to such an historical-critical view, serves to provide an explanation of why an Egyptian Pharaoh so angrily chased after the Israelites.
Versions of the Jahwist and Elohist
Within the understanding of the documentary hypothesis, in the
JahwistThe Jahwist, also referred to as the Jehovist, Yahwist, or simply as J, is one of the four major sources of the Torah postulated by the Documentary Hypothesis . It is the oldest source, whose narratives make up half of Genesis and the first half of Exodus, plus fragments of Numbers...
version of the tale, Moses asks Pharaoh for the release of the people, but Pharaoh refuses, claiming not to know who
YahwehYahweh is the English rendering of יַהְוֶה , a Hebrew vocalization of the Tetragrammaton that was proposed by the Hebrew scholar Wilhelm Gesenius in the 19th century. Although this vocalized Hebrew spelling יַהְוֶה is found in no extant Hebrew Manuscript, several English Bibles use the spelling...
is. Consequently God sends the first plague, and Pharaoh recants, begging Moses for assistance, and immediately allowing the people to go, albeit under certain conditions. The Jahwist continues to describe Moses as insisting on the conditions, but nevertheless begging God to end the plague, which happens, but Pharaoh goes back on his word, and so God sends another plague. This pattern repeats, the Pharaoh gradually acceding to more and more conditions, until, after the death of the firstborn, Pharaoh finally accedes to all of them, even allowing the Israelites to take the ornaments of the Egyptians, begging to be blessed by Yahweh. Nevertheless, true to form, according to the Jahwist, Pharaoh goes back on his word, and chases after the released Israelites to
recapture them.
By contrast, although the
ElohistThe Elohist is one of four sources of the Torah described by the Documentary Hypothesis. Its name comes from the term it uses for God: Elohim...
presents a similar set of plagues, the story is much less naturalistic. The Elohist has Moses threatening Pharaoh, and then, via his rod, carrying out each plague, until eventually he threatens to kill all the firstborn of Egypt, even giving a ritual to the Israelites so that they can cause this death to pass over their houses. At this point, the fear of Moses amongst the Egyptians reaches such a point that they are described as being insistent that the Israelites should get out of Egypt as soon as possible, before the final plague, apparently not carried out, is visited upon them. The Israelites then leave
with a high hand, but are soon chased
away by Pharaoh's army.
The Elohist also splits up some of the Jahwist's plagues, making them more elaborate,
- Making the plague of the river, which in the Jahwist, involves the smiting of the river, leading to the death of the fish, and subsequent swarms of frogs seven days later, into two plagues, one involving the river turning into blood, and a separate involving swarms of frogs
- Making the plague of hail, which in the Jahwist, is a pestilence attacking everything in the fields, crops and cattle, into two plagues, one involving the cattle being attacked by a pestilence, and the other involving hail and fire against the crops.
- Making the plague of locusts, which, in the Jahwist, is so great that it covers the land, into a plague of locusts, and a later plague of darkness.
While the Jahwist's presentation of the plagues is much more naturalistic, the plagues just
happening, and Moses just praying that they end, it is the Elohist description of the Egyptians' motive in chasing after the Israelites that accords better with an identification of the Israelites as the
HyksosbfThe Hyksos were an Asiatic people who invaded the eastern Nile Delta, in the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt initiating the Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt...
. Generally, in critical scholarship, both these versions are seen as being based on a shared tradition, rather than one taking precedence over the other, with the Elohist seeking to spin Moses as having supernatural powers and the Israelites as being chased because they are feared, rather than hated like the Hyksos.
Versions of the Priestly source and JE
When combined into
JEJE is a hypothetical intermediate source text of the Torah postulated by the DH. It is a combination and redaction of the Jahwist and Elohist source texts. According to this hypothesis, J was composed c. 950 BC, E was composed c. 850 BC, and the two were combined into JE c. 750 BC. JE was...
, the story becomes one in which Moses threatened the plague, then made a sign at which God carries the plague out, and then is from time to time asked by Pharaoh for forgiveness, at which point the plague is undone. While the Elohist produced 8 plagues, and thus so did JE, the Jahwists conception, of there being 5 plagues, appears to have been a tradition preserved at least until the
Priestly sourceThe Priestly Source is posited as the most recent of the four chief sources of the Torah, as postulated by the long-established "standard" Wellhausen formulation of the Documentary Hypothesis . It is seen as the work of an Aaronid priest and as such reflects, among other characteristics...
, who, in writing their own version of JE, also chose 5 plagues, cutting out the plagues of locusts, darkness, and hail.
The Priestly source, however, completely changes the framing of the plagues. Instead of threats to Pharaoh, or punishment for which Pharaoh begs forgiveness, the plagues are presented merely as a trial to prove Yahweh's authority. Each plague is followed by the magicians attempting to duplicate the plague, succeeding on the first two, leading to Pharaoh
hardening his heart. The second pair of plagues are also made more immediate and relevant to the magicians, these plagues are of lice rather than flies, and of boils rather than an unspecified pestilence, leading to the magicians being unable to perform these activities. The final plague, the death of firstborn, is also altered to appear as a punishment for the Egyptians.
The Priestly source, keen to assert God as only acting via the Aaronid priesthood, also describes Aaron as being the one instigating the plagues, starting, "And The LORD said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron", whereas it is always Moses who is involved in either carrying out, or stopping, the plagues in JE.
The Plagues in the Quran
The Quran presents few descriptions of the plagues of Egypt, most notably
(VII.133, 136, Pickthall) "We sent them the flood and the locusts and the vermin and the frogs and the blood … therefore we drowned them in the sea: because they denied Our revelations and were heedless of them."
(XXIX, 39–40, Ali) "(Remember also) Qarun, Pharaoh and Haman: there came to them Moses with clear signs, but they behaved with insolence on the earth; yet they could not overreach (Us). Each one of them we seized for his crime: of them, against some we sent a violent tornado (with showers of stones); some we caught by a (mighty) blast; some we caused the earth to swallow up; and some we drowned (in the waters): it was not Allah who injured (and oppressed) them: they injured (and oppressed) their own souls."
Historicity
Secular thinkers believe the plague stories are simply mythical or allegorical, or inspired by passed-down accounts of disconnected natural disasters. Others have speculated on possible natural inspirations behind the story of the succession of plagues. There are some empirical proofs that the plagues did in fact occur, although many of these are disputed.
Archaeology
There is
archaeologicalArchaeology or archeology is the science that studies human cultures through the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material culture and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, and landscapes...
material that some Christian archaeologists, such as
William F. AlbrightWilliam Foxwell Albright was an American archaeologist, biblical scholar, linguist and expert on ceramics. From the early twentieth century until his death, he was the dean of biblical archaeologists and the universally acknowledged founder of the Biblical archaeology movement...
, have considered historical evidence of the Ten Plagues; for example, an ancient water-trough found in El Arish bears
hieroglyphicEgyptian hieroglyphs was a formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that contained a combination of logographic and alphabetic elements. Egyptians used cursive hieroglyphs for religious literature on papyrus and wood...
markings detailing a period of darkness. Albright, and other Christian archaeologists have claimed that such evidence, as well as careful study of the areas ostensibly traveled by the Israelites after the Exodus, make discounting the biblical account untenable. However, their arguments have not persuaded many archaeologists.
The Egyptian
Ipuwer papyrusThe Ipuwer Papyrus is a single surviving papyrus holding an ancient Egyptian poem, called The Admonitions of Ipuwer or The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All. Its official designation is Papyrus Leiden I 344 recto...
describes a series of calamities befalling Egypt, including a river turned to blood, men behaving as wild ibises, and the land generally turned upside down. However, this is usually thought to describe a general and long term ecological disaster lasting for a period of decades,
such as that which destroyed the
Old KingdomThe Old Kingdom is the name commonly given to the period in the 3rd millennium BC when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement – the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley .The...
. The document is usually dated to the end of the
Middle KingdomThe Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty, between 2080 BC and 1640 BC....
, or more rarely, to its beginning, fitting the Old Kingdom destruction, but in both cases long before the usual theorized dates for the Exodus.
Immanuel VelikovskyImmanuel Velikovsky was a Russian-born American independent scholar, best known as the author of a number of controversial books reinterpreting the events of ancient history, in particular the US bestseller Worlds in Collision, published in 1950...
decided that the Egyptian papyrus did, in fact, describe the events of Exodus, along with the major natural
catastrophesA disaster is the tragedy of a natural or human-made hazard that negatively affects society or environment....
that he thought preceded it; in his opinion it was the conventional
chronologies of EgyptThe creation of a reliable chronology of Ancient Egypt is a task fraught with problems. While the overwhelming majority of Egyptologists agree on the outline and many of the details of a common chronology, disagreements either individually or in groups have resulted in a variety of dates offered...
that were wrong by several hundred years.
Natural explanations
As noted above, some science writers and Bible researchers have suggested that the plagues were passed-down accounts of ordinary natural disasters, and not supernatural miracles. Natural explanations have been suggested for most of the phenomena:
- (plague 1—water turned into blood, fish died)
- The redness in the Nile could have actually been pollution caused by volcanic activity, specifically that of Santorini
Santorini is a small, circular archipelago of volcanic islands located in the southern Aegean Sea, about southeast from Greece's mainland. The largest island is known as Thēra , forming the southernmost member of the Cyclades group of islands, with an area of approximately and a 2001 census...
, which erupted around 1500 B.C. and whose ash is found in the Nile region. The siltSilt is soil or rock derived granular material of a grain size between sand and clay. Silt may occur as a soil or as suspended sediment in a surface water body...
could make the Nile turn blood red, and would also render it undrinkable. Heavy rains in the red-soiled area of Lake Victoria could have caused reddened water to wash downstream.
- Alternatively, a red toxic algal bloom (red tide
Red tide is a common name for a phenomenon more correctly known as an algal bloom , an event in which estuarine, marine, or fresh water algae accumulate rapidly in the water column and results in discoloration of the surface water...
) could have produced large quantities of toxins that would kill fish.
- (plague 2—frogs) Any blight on the water that killed fish also would have caused frogs to leave the river and, probably, die.
- (plagues 3 and 4—biting insects and flies) The lack of frogs in the river would have let insect populations, normally kept in check by the frogs, increase massively.
- (plagues 5 and 6—livestock disease and boils) There are biting flies in the region which transmit livestock diseases; a sudden increase in their number could spark epidemic
Defining an epidemic can be subjective, depending in part on what is "expected". An epidemic may be restricted to one locale , more general or even global...
s.
- (plague 7—fiery hail) Volcanic activity not only brings with it ash, but brimstone, and also alters the weather
Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmosphere at a given time. Weather phenomena lie in the troposphere. Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods...
system, occasionally producing hail. Hail could also have occurred as a completely independent natural weather event, with accompanying lightning as the "fire".
- (plague 8—locusts) The weight of hail will destroy most crops, leaving several insects and other animals without a normal food source. The remaining crops therefore would become targeted heavily, and thus be destroyed by swarms of locusts which would otherwise be distributed rather thinly. Or the locusts could have increased due to a lack of predators. Even without these explanations, swarms of locusts are not uncommon today.
- (plague 9—darkness) There could be several causes for unusual darkness: a solar eclipse
A solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is fully or partially covered. This can only happen during a new moon, when the Sun and Moon are in conjunction as seen from the Earth. At least two and up to five solar eclipses can occur each year on Earth,...
, a sandstormSandstorm can refer to:* Dust storm, a storm caused by strong winds and blowing sand or dust* "Sandstorm ", an electronica song by Darude* "Sandstorm", a song by Level 42 on the album Strategy* Sandstorm: The Jim Boz Dance Company...
, volcanic ash, or simply swarms of locusts large enough to block out the sun.
- (plague 10—death of the firstborn)
- If the last plague indeed selectively tended to affect the firstborn, it could be due to food polluted during the time of darkness, either by locusts or by the black mold Cladosporium
Cladosporium is a genus of fungi including some of the most common indoor and outdoor molds. It produces olive-green to brown or black colonies, and its dark-pigmented conidia are formed in simple or branching chains....
. When people emerged after the darkness, the firstborn would be given priority, as was usual, and would consequently be more likely to be affected by any toxin or disease carried by the food. Meanwhile, the Israelites ate food prepared and eaten very quickly which would have made it less likely to be infected.
- The word we know as "firstborn" may have meant the higher social class rather than literally the eldest sons, but the same argument applies.
- In the 2006 documentary Exodus Decoded
The Exodus Decoded is a 2006 History Channel documentary created by Jewish Canadian filmmaker Simcha Jacobovici and the producer/director James Cameron. The documentary explores evidence for the Biblical account of the Exodus. Its claims and methods were widely criticized both by Biblical scholars...
, Jewish Canadian filmmaker Simcha JacoboviciSimcha Jacobovici is an Israeli and Canadian controversial film director, producer and free-lance journalist and writer. He holds a B.A. in Philosophy from McGill University and an M.A. in International Relations from the University of Toronto. He hosted the The Naked Archaeologist on VisionTV in...
hypothesised the selectiveness of the tenth plague was under the circumstances similar to the 1986 disaster of Lake NyosLake Nyos is a crater lake in the Northwest Province of Cameroon, located about northwest of Yaoundé. Nyos is a deep lake high on the flank of an inactive volcano in the Oku volcanic plain along the Cameroon line of volcanic activity...
that is related to geological activities that caused the previous plagues in a related chain of events. The hypothesis was that the plagues took place shortly after the eruption of Thera (now known as SantoriniSantorini is a small, circular archipelago of volcanic islands located in the southern Aegean Sea, about southeast from Greece's mainland. The largest island is known as Thēra , forming the southernmost member of the Cyclades group of islands, with an area of approximately and a 2001 census...
), which happened some time between 1550 BCE and 1650 BCE, and recently narrowed to between 1627–1600 BCE, with a 95% probability of accuracy. Jacobovici however places the eruption in 1500 BCE. According to the documentary, the eruption sets off a chain of events resulting in the plagues and eventually the killing of the first born. Jacobovici suggests that the first borns in ancient Egypt had the privilege to sleep close to the floor while other children slept on higher ground or even on roofs. This view, however, is not supported by any archaeological or historical evidence. Like in Lake Nyos, when carbon dioxide or other toxic gases escape the surface tensionSurface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid. It is what causes the surface portion of liquid to be attracted to another surface, such as that of another portion of liquid .Applying Newtonian physics to the forces that arise due to surface tension accurately predicts many liquid behaviors...
of a nearby waterbody either due to geological activity or over saturation, the gas being heavier than air, "flooded" the nearby area displacing oxygen and killing those who were in its path. Jewish households escaped the fate because they were told to observe their first Passover rituals.
None of these explanations (aside of Jacobovici's) account for the selectiveness of the plagues: according to the
Hebrew BibleThe Hebrew Bible is a term referring to the books of the Jewish Bible as originally written mostly in Biblical Hebrew with some Biblical Aramaic...
the plagues affected only the Egyptians, while the Hebrews remained untouched.
A volcanic eruption which happened in antiquity and could have caused some of the plagues if it occurred at the right time is the eruption of the Thera volcano 650 miles to the northwest of Egypt. Controversially dated to about 1628 BC, this eruption is one of the largest on record, rivaling that of
TamboraMount Tambora is an active stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, on Sumbawa island, Indonesia. Sumbawa is flanked both to the north and south by oceanic crust, and Tambora was formed by the active subduction zones beneath it...
, which resulted in 1816's
Year Without a SummerThe Year Without a Summer was 1816, in which severe summer climate abnormalities destroyed crops in Northern Europe, the Northeastern United States and eastern Canada.Historian John D...
. The enormous global impact of this eruption has been recorded in an ash layer deposit found in the Nile delta, tree ring frost scars in the
bristlecone pineThe bristlecone pines are a small group of pine trees that are thought to reach an age far greater than that of any other single living organism known, up to nearly 5,000 years....
s of the western United States, and a coating of ash in the Greenland ice caps, all dated to the same time and with the same chemical fingerprint as the ash from Thera.
However, all estimates of the date of this eruption are hundreds of years before the Exodus is believed to have taken place; thus the eruption can only have caused some of the plagues if one or other of the dates is wrong, or if the plagues did not actually immediately precede the Exodus.
Following the assumption that at least some of the details are accurately reported, many modern
JewsJudaism is a set of beliefs and practices originating in the Hebrew Bible , as later further explored and explained in the Talmud and other texts...
believe that some of the plagues were indeed natural disasters, but argue for the fact that, since they followed one another with such uncommon rapidity, "God's hand was behind them". Indeed, several
BiblicalThe Tanakh is a name for the Bible used in Rabbinic Judaism, also known as the Masoretic Text. The name "Tanakh" is a Hebrew acronym formed from the initial Hebrew letters of the Masoretic Text's three traditional subdivisions: The Torah , Nevi'im and Ketuvim —hence...
commentators (Nachmanides and, more recently,
RabbiRabbi is the term in Judaism for a religious teacher. The word rabbi derives from the Hebrew root word , rav, which in biblical Hebrew means ‘great’ in many senses, including "revered." The word comes from the Semitic root R-B-B, and is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb, meaning "lord" Rabbi have pointed out that, for the plagues to be a real test of faith, they had to contain an element leading to religious doubt.
In his book
The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science Look at the Bible, Siro Igino Trevisanato explores the theory that the plagues were initially caused by the Santorini eruption in Greece. His hypothesis considers a two-stage eruption over a time of a bit less than two years. His studies place the first eruption in 1602 BC, when volcanic ash taints the Nile, causing the first plague and forming a catalyst for many of the subsequent plagues. In 1600 BC, the plume of a Santorini eruption caused the ninth plague, the days of darkness. Trevisanato hypothesizes that the Egyptians (at that time under the occupation of Hyksos), resorted to human sacrifice in an attempt to appease the gods, for they had viewed the ninth plague as a precursor to more. This human sacrifice became known as the tenth plague.
In an article published in 1996, physician-epidemiologist John S. Marr and co-author Curt Malloy integrated biblical, historical and Egyptological sources with modern scientific conjectures in a comprehensive review of natural explanations for the ten plagues, postulating their own specific explanations for the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and tenth plagues. Their explanation also accounted for the apparent selectiveness of the plagues, as implied in the Bible. The paper served as the basis for a widely acclaimed website and for a documentary aired on the Learning Channel from 1998 to 2005.
Controversy on justification of the tenth plague
The last plague has been depicted by critics as a cruel and unjustifiable punishment against the Egyptians, and is criticized for promoting an unethical
SchadenfreudeSchadenfreude is pleasure derived from the misfortunes of others. This German word is used as a loanword in English and some other languages, including Dutch, Danish and Swedish. -Spelling and etymology:...
("pleasure taken from someone else's misfortune"). A common and widely accepted Jewish
MidrashMidrash is a homiletic method of biblical exegesis. The term also refers to the whole compilation of homiletic teachings on the Bible....
explains the dreadful plague by expanding upon Exodus 10:28, where Pharaoh threatens to kill Moses:
- When Moses went to Pharaoh to demand of him that he let the people go, the whole event is happening in front of Pharaoh
Pharaoh is a title used in many modern discussions of the ancient Egyptian rulers of all periods. In antiquity this title began to be used for the ruler who was the religious and political leader of united ancient Egypt. This was true only during the New Kingdom, specifically during the middle of...
's first born son who teases and mocks his father for allowing the Hebrew shepherd to humiliate him. Enraged by the insult and mad with pridePride is, depending on the context, either a high sense of the worth of one's self or one's own or a pleasure taken in the contemplation of these things...
, Pharaoh resolved to have revenge for the plagues, and told Moses that he shall deal with the Hebrews in such a manner that a great cry will be heard in Egypt, such that has never been heard before. This was an allusion to the crimes of his father, who ordered the drowning of the male children of the Hebrews. Therefore, Pharaoh brought this harsh punishment upon his own people. His cruel plan was turned back upon him, so that what Pharaoh wanted to do to the Hebrews, God made to happen to him.
This Midrash justifies the last plague with two main arguments:
- Retribution in kind מידה כנגד מידה (Mida ke-neged mida): in the Bible the punishment fits to the crime
Eye for an Eye is a Polish hardcore punk rock band founded in 1997 in Bielsko-Biała. EFAE, as it is also known, plays an old school style of punk, more along the veins of The Exploited or even, some say, Agnostic Front. The punk stylings of EFAE has been compared to fellow countrymen Post Regiment,...
, not only in severity, but also in symbolism. This is for a pedagogicPedagogy is the study of being a teacher. The term generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction.Pedagogy is also sometimes referred to as the correct use of teaching strategies . For example, Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching adults as "critical pedagogy"...
reason: so that everyone, including the sinner himself, shall know why he has been punished by God.
- Self defence הקם להרגך, השכם להורגו (Ha-kam le-horgecha hashkem le-horgo): Pharaoh planned to slaughter all Hebrew children. By inflicting upon Pharaoh the same thing he planned for the Hebrews, his plan was thwarted.
Under this rationale, it can be seen that God is basically committing the same "evil" that Pharaoh intended to commit. By sending a plague that will kill innocent Egyptian children, God is performing that for which Pharaoh deserved punishment – a crime Pharaoh had not yet committed, but fully intended to.
Some scholars, however, disagree with the interpretation of this plague which emphasizes children, and focus rather on the "first-born" aspect of the plague. As was typical in cultures of the time (and is seen many times in the Old Testament), the custom was for the first-born son to be the major inheritor, from the lowest strata of society to the throne of Pharaoh itself; and thus the first-born sons of Egypt would embody the leadership of the families of the nation. In addition, according to this interpretation, the priests of Egypt were largely first-born sons. Thus, in this view, the first-born sons of Egypt were in fact the decision makers, and communally responsible for the deeds of the nation, good or evil.
Popular culture
- The 1956 film The Ten Commandments
The Ten Commandments is a 1956 motion picture that dramatized the biblical story of Moses, an adopted Egyptian prince-turned deliverer of the Hebrew slaves. It was released by Paramount Pictures in VistaVision on October 5, 1956. It was directed by Cecil B. DeMille and starred Charlton Heston in...
depicts the plagues of Blood, Hail, Darkness, and Death of the Firstborn, and alludes to Frogs, Boils and Flies, but omits those of Lice, Death of Cattle, and Locusts. According to the commentary track in the DVD version of the film, DeMille was aware of all the natural explanations for the plagues, and has Ramses recite them to debunk the idea that God is responsible. The film omits the funnel-cloud that guided the people out of Egypt, using a funnel-cloud of fire before nightfall; the Bible has a 'pillar of cloud' by day and a 'pillar of fire' only at night. William WhistonWilliam Whiston , was an English theologian, historian, and mathematician. He is probably best known for his translation of the Antiquities of the Jews and other works by Josephus, his A New Theory of the Earth, and his Arianism.-Biography:Whiston was born to Josiah Whiston and Katherine Rosse at...
(translator of Josephus) claimed a comet caused this. Researchers must also note the rise and set of the full moon in the clear sky over the Israelites as a source of light.
- The Ten Plagues of Egypt were dramatized by the heavy metal group Metallica
Metallica is an American heavy metal band from Los Angeles, California, formed in 1981. Founded when drummer Lars Ulrich posted an advertisement in a local newspaper, Metallica's line-up has primarily consisted of Ulrich, rhythm guitarist and vocalist James Hetfield, and lead guitarist Kirk...
in their song "Creeping Death"Creeping Death" is a song by the American heavy metal band Metallica and is the seventh track on their 1984 album Ride the Lightning. Written from the perspective of the Angel of Death, it describes the Plague of the Firstborn...
", on their 1984 release Ride the LightningRide the Lightning is the second album by American heavy metal band Metallica, released on July 27, 1984 by Megaforce Records and re-released by Elektra Records on November 19, 1984. Ride the Lightning has sold over 5 million copies in the U.S....
. Late bassist Cliff BurtonClifford Lee Burton was an American bassist best known as the bass player of American heavy metal band Metallica...
came up with the title of the song while watching the 1956 Biblical epic The Ten CommandmentsThe Ten Commandments is a 1956 motion picture that dramatized the biblical story of Moses, an adopted Egyptian prince-turned deliverer of the Hebrew slaves. It was released by Paramount Pictures in VistaVision on October 5, 1956. It was directed by Cecil B. DeMille and starred Charlton Heston in...
, specifically when the Angel of Death moved among Egyptians, killing the firstborn in each family. The plagues were also dramatized (albeit diverging somewhat from the canonical list) as part of a modern horror film in The Abominable Dr. PhibesThe Abominable Dr. Phibes is a horror film starring Vincent Price. Its art deco sets, dark humor and "over the top" performance by Price has made the film and its sequel Dr...
(1971).
- The band Lars Frederiksen and the Bastards
Lars Frederiksen and the Bastards are an American street punk band formed to release the songs that Lars had written. Their songs include subject matter consisting of drinking, fighting, drugs, sex, prostitutes, gangs, and street life...
have the song "Ten Plagues of Egypt" on their first self titled album.
- The Reaping
The Reaping is an American horror film released on April 5, 2007, and starring Hilary Swank, David Morrissey, Idris Elba, AnnaSophia Robb and Stephen Rea. The film was directed by Stephen Hopkins for Warner Bros. and Dark Castle Entertainment...
, a 2007 film starring Hilary Swank, depicts the Ten Plagues in modern Louisiana, brought upon a town of satanic cultists. The protagonist, Katherine Winter, tries to find a scientific explanation to the occurrences but eventually has to admit to their supernatural origin.
- In the 1999 release of The Mummy
The Mummy is a 1999 American adventure film written and directed by Stephen Sommers and starring Brendan Fraser, and Rachel Weisz, with Arnold Vosloo in the title role as the reanimated mummy. The film features substantial dialogue in ancient Egyptian language, spoken with the assistance of a...
, ImhotepImhotep , fl. 27th century BC was an Egyptian polymath, who served under the Third Dynasty king, Djoser, as chancellor to the pharaoh and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis...
brings about several of the plagues as he seeks to be fully resurrected. The most notable are the locusts, flies and gnats, water (and apparently whiskey) turning to blood, boils and sores, the hailstorm of fire and an eclipse, but not in the order listed in the holy books. As the character of Imhotep is shown to have died during the early reign of Ramesses IIRamesses II was the third Egyptian pharaoh of the Nineteenth dynasty...
, the film implies that the Plagues of Egypt occurred during or before the reign of Seti IMenmaatre Seti I was a Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt , the son of Ramesses I and Queen Sitre, and the father of Ramesses II...
.
- In the 1998 animated film The Prince of Egypt
The Prince of Egypt is a 1998 American animated film, the first traditionally animated film produced and released by DreamWorks. The story follows the life of Moses from his birth, through his childhood as a prince of Egypt, and finally to his ultimate destiny to lead the Hebrew slaves out of...
, which told the story of Moses leading the Hebrews out of Egypt, all ten plagues are shown in some form, but the lice and fleas are seemingly replaced by beetles, ants and crickets.
- In the 1999 film Magnolia
Magnolia is a 1999 American drama film, written and directed by Paul Thomas Anderson, and starring John C. Reilly, Tom Cruise, Julianne Moore, Philip Seymour Hoffman, William H. Macy, and Jeremy Blackman. It interweaves nine separate yet connected storylines, about the interactions among several...
by Paul Thomas AndersonPaul Thomas Anderson is an American film director, screenwriter, and producer. He has written and directed five feature films: Hard Eight , Boogie Nights , Magnolia , Punch-Drunk Love and There Will Be Blood...
, and the plague of frogs is referenced frequently.
- In Charles R. Pellegrino
Charles R. Pellegrino is a renowned and sometimes controversial author of several books relating to archaeology, including Return to Sodom and Gomorrah, Ghosts of the Titanic , Unearthing Atlantis and Ghosts of Vesuvius.From the inside cover of Ghosts of Vesuvius: Charles Pellegrino has been known...
's novel Dust, many of the Ten Plagues are given a scientific basis as part of the 33-million-year cycle of extinctionIn biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species...
events on Earth.
- The song "Pray for Plagues
"Pray for Plagues" is a song written and released by the UK deathcore band, Bring Me the Horizon. It was released in mid 2007 as a promotional music video only and not released as an official single for download or physical release sale...
" by the band Bring Me The HorizonBring Me the Horizon are an English metalcore band from Sheffield, Yorkshire, who formed in 2004. They played a style of music that fuses death metal and metalcore, known as deathcore on their first album — but they have taken on a more eclectic style with their latest album.-Early years and Count...
references the first and tenth plagues extensively.
- Philippine drama series May Bukas Pa
May Bukas Pa is a Philippine drama series which started airing on February 2, 2009 at ABS-CBN. It is loosely based on the 1955 Spanish film The Miracle of Marcelino .-Production:...
on ABS-CBNABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation is a Philippine-based multi-media conglomerate. It is an integrated media and entertainment company in the Philippines with 42 subsidiaries and an asset base of more than PHP34 billion as of March 2009...
began integrating the plagues into the series about a young boy who speaks to Jesus and has the power to heal.
See also
- Exodus
- Moses
Moses was, according to biblical texts, a religious leader, lawgiver, and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbeinu in Hebrew Moses was, according to biblical texts, a...
- Passover
Passover is a Jewish and Samaritan holy day and festival commemorating the Hebrews' escape from enslavement in Egypt....
- Passover Seder
The Passover Seder is a Jewish ritual feast that marks the beginning of the Jewish holiday of Passover. The seder is held on the evening of the 14th day of Nisan on the Hebrew calendar .-Overview:The Seder is an intergenerational family ritual prescribed according to Jewish law and based on...
- Aaron's rod
Aaron's rod refers to any of the staffs carried by Moses' brother, Aaron, in the Old Testament of the Bible. The Bible tells how, along with Moses' rod, Aaron's rod was endowed with miraculous power during the Plagues of Egypt which preceded the Exodus...
- Ipuwer Papyrus
The Ipuwer Papyrus is a single surviving papyrus holding an ancient Egyptian poem, called The Admonitions of Ipuwer or The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All. Its official designation is Papyrus Leiden I 344 recto...
Literature
- Hermann and Anna Levinson: Zur Biologie der zehn biblischen Plagen DGaaE Nachrichten 22 (2008), 83–102 (German)