Pharmacists are allied health professionals who practice in
pharmacyPharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs...
, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective
medicationA pharmaceutical drug, also referred to as medicine, medication or medicament, can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease.- Classification :...
use. The role of the pharmacist has shifted from the classical "lick, stick, and pour" dispensary role (that is, "lick & stick the labels, count & pour the pills"), to being an integrated member of the
health careHealth care is the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in humans. Health care is delivered by practitioners in medicine, chiropractic, dentistry, nursing, pharmacy, allied health, and other care providers...
team directly involved in
patientA patient is any recipient of healthcare services. The patient is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a physician, advanced practice registered nurse, veterinarian, or other health care provider....
care. Pharmacists undergo university-level education to understand biochemical mechanisms of action of drugs, drug uses and therapeutic roles, side effects, potential interactions, and monitoring parameters. This is mated to education in anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology. Professional interpretation and communication of this specialized knowledge to patients,
physicianA physician is a health care provider who practices the profession of medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury and other physical and mental impairments...
s, and other health care providers are functions which pharmacists provide, and are central to the provision of safe and effective drug therapy.
In many countries, pharmacists must hold the title of
Doctor of PharmacyA Doctor of Pharmacy is a professional doctorate degree in pharmacy. In some countries, it is a first professional degree, and a prerequisite for licensing to exercise the profession of pharmacist.-Kenya :...
in order to exercise their profession.
The most common pharmacist positions are that of a
community pharmacist (also referred to as "retail pharmacist" or "dispensing chemist"), or a
hospital pharmacist, where they instruct and counsel on the proper use and adverse effects of medically prescribed drugs and medicines. In most countries, the profession is subject to
professional regulationHealthcare provider requisites refer to the regulations used by countries to control the quality of individual healthcare workers practicing in their jurisdictions and to control the size of the health labour market...
. Depending on the legal
scope of practiceScope of Practice is a terminology used by national and state/provincial licensing boards for various professions that defines the procedures, actions, and processes that are permitted for the licensed individual. The scope of practice is limited to that which the law allows for specific education...
, pharmacists may contribute to prescribing (also referred to as "pharmacist prescriber") and administering certain medications (e.g. immunizations in some jurisdictions). Pharmacists may also practice in a variety of other settings, including industry, research, academia, military, and government.
Nature of the work
Historically, the fundamental role of pharmacists as a
healthcare practitionerA health care provider is an individual or an institution that provides preventive, curative, promotional or rehabilitative health care services in a systematic way to individuals, families or communities....
was to distribute drugs that had been prescribed to patients. In more modern times, pharmacists advise patients and health care providers on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side effects of medications, and act as a
learned intermediaryLearned Intermediary is a defense doctrine used in the legal system of the United States. This doctrine states that a manufacturer of a product has fulfilled his duty of care when he provides all of the necessary information to a "learned intermediary" who then interacts with the consumer of a...
between a prescriber and a patient. Pharmacists monitor the
healthHealth is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or pain...
and progress of patients to ensure the safe and effective use of medication. Pharmacists may practice
compoundingCompounding is the mixing of drugs by a compounding pharmacist to fit the unique needs of a patient...
; however, many medicines are now produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. In some jurisdictions, pharmacists have
prescriptive authorityA prescription is a health-care program implemented by a physician or other medical practitioner in the form of instructions that govern the plan of care for an individual patient. Prescriptions may include orders to be performed by a patient, caretaker, nurse, pharmacist or other therapist....
to either independently prescribe under their own authority or in collaboration with a
primary care physicianA primary care physician, or PCP, is a physician/medical doctor who provides both the first contact for a person with an undiagnosed health concern as well as continuing care of varied medical conditions, not limited by cause, organ system, or diagnosis....
through an agreed upon protocol.
Increased numbers of drug therapies, ageing but more knowledgeable and demanding populations, and deficiencies in other areas of the
health care systemA health care system is the organization of people, institutions, and resources to deliver health care services to meet the health needs of target populations....
seem to be driving increased demand for the clinical counselling skills of the pharmacist. One of the most important roles that pharmacists are currently taking on is one of pharmaceutical care. Pharmaceutical care involves taking direct responsibility for patients and their disease states, medications, and the management of each in order to improve the outcome for each individual patient. Pharmaceutical care has many benefits that may include but are not limited to: decreased medication errors; increased patient compliance in medication regimen; better chronic disease state management; strong pharmacist-patient relationship; and decreased long-term costs of medical care.
Pharmacists are often the first point-of-contact for patients with health inquiries. This means that pharmacists have large roles in the assessing medication management in patients, and in
referringIn medicine, referral is the transfer of care for a patient from one clinician to another.Tertiary care is usually done by referral from primary or secondary medical care personnel....
patients to physicians. These roles may include, but are not limited to:
- clinical medication management, including reviewing and monitoring of medication regimens
- assessment of patients with undiagnosed or diagnosed conditions, and ascertaining clinical medication management needs
- specialized monitoring of disease
A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
states, such as dosing drugs in renalRenal failure or kidney failure describes a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste products from the blood...
and hepatic failure
- compounding medicines
- providing pharmaceutical information
- providing patients with health monitoring and advice, including advice and treatment of common ailments and disease states
- supervising pharmacy technician
A pharmacy technician, also sometimes known as a pharmaceutical technician, is a health care worker who performs pharmacy related functions, generally working under the direct supervision of a licensed pharmacist or other health professional...
s and other staff
- oversight of dispensing medicines on prescription
- provision of non-prescription or over-the-counter drug
Over-the-counter drugs are medicines that may be sold directly to a consumer without a prescription from a healthcare professional, as compared to prescription drugs, which may be sold only to consumers possessing a valid prescription...
s
- education and counseling for patients and other health care providers on optimal use of medicines (e.g. proper use, avoidance of overmedication
Overmedication is an inappropriate medical treatment that occurs when a patient takes unnecessary or excessive medications. This may happen because the prescriber is unaware of other medications the patient is already taking, because of drug interactions with another chemical or target population,...
)
- referrals to other health professionals if necessary
- pharmacokinetic evaluation
- promoting public health
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals" . It is concerned with threats to health based on population health...
by administering immunizations
Education and credentialing
The role of pharmacy education, pharmacist licensing, and graduate
continuing educationContinuing education is an all-encompassing term within a broad spectrum of post-secondary learning activities and programs. The term is used mainly in the United States and Canada...
vary from country to country and between regions/localities within countries. In most countries, pharmacists must obtain a university degree at a
pharmacy schoolThe basic requirement for pharmacists to be considered for registration is an undergraduate or postgraduate Pharmacy degree from a recognized university. In most countries this involves a four- or five-year course to attain a Master of Pharmacy...
or related institution, and/or satisfy other national/local credentialing requirements. In many contexts, students are required to first complete pre-professional (undergraduate) coursework followed by about four years of professional academic studies in order to obtain a degree in pharmacy (e.g.
Bachelor of PharmacyA Bachelor of Pharmacy is an undergraduate academic degree in the field of pharmacy. The degree is the basic prerequisite for registration to practice as a pharmacist in many countries. In some countries, it has been superseded by the Master of Pharmacy and Doctor of Pharmacy degrees...
or PharmD). Pharmacists are educated in
pharmacologyPharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function...
,
pharmacognosyPharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources. The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines pharmacognosy as "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well...
,
chemistryChemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
,
organic chemistryOrganic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...
,
biochemistryBiochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
, pharmaceutical chemistry,
microbiologyMicrobiology is the study of microorganisms, which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters or no cell at all . This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes...
,
pharmacy practicePharmacy practice is the discipline of pharmacy which involves developing the professional roles of pharmacists.-Areas of practice:Areas of pharmacy practice include:*Disease-state management...
(including
drug interactionA drug interaction is a situation in which a substance affects the activity of a drug, i.e. the effects are increased or decreased, or they produce a new effect that neither produces on its own. Typically, interaction between drugs come to mind...
s, medicine monitoring, medication management),
pharmaceuticsPharmaceutics is the discipline of pharmacy that deals with all facets of the process of turning a new chemical entity into a medication able to be safely and effectively used by patients in the community. Pharmaceutics is the science of dosage form design...
, pharmacy law,
physiologyPhysiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
,
anatomyAnatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...
,
pharmacokineticsPharmacokinetics, sometimes abbreviated as PK, is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to the determination of the fate of substances administered externally to a living organism...
,
pharmacodynamicsPharmacodynamics is the study of the biochemical and physiological effects of drugs on the body or on microorganisms or parasites within or on the body and the mechanisms of drug action and the relationship between drug concentration and effect...
, drug delivery, pharmaceutical care,
nephrologyNephrology is a branch of internal medicine and pediatrics dealing with the study of the function and diseases of the kidney.-Scope of the specialty:...
,
hepatologyHepatology is the branch of medicine that incorporates the study of liver, gallbladder, biliary tree, and pancreas as well as management of their disorders. Etymologically the word Hepatology is formed of ancient Greek hepar or hepato- meaning ' liver' and suffix -logia meaning 'word' or 'speech'...
, and compounding of medications. Additional curriculum may cover diagnosis with emphasis on laboratory tests, disease state management, therapeutics and prescribing (selecting the most appropriate medication for a given patient).
Upon graduation, pharmacists are licensed either nationally or by region to dispense medication of various types in the settings for which they have been trained. Some may undergo further specialized training, such as in cardiology or oncology.
Practice specialization
Specialties include:
- Academic Pharmacist
- Clinical Pharmacy Specialist
Clinical pharmacy is the branch of Pharmacy where pharmacists provide patient care that optimizes the use of medication and promotes health, wellness, and disease prevention. Clinical pharmacists care for patients in all health care settings but the clinical pharmacy movement initially began inside...
- Community Pharmacist
- Compounding Pharmacist
Compounding is the mixing of drugs by a compounding pharmacist to fit the unique needs of a patient...
- Consultant Pharmacist
A consultant pharmacist is a specialized pharmacist. The main principle of consultant pharmacy is Pharmaceutical care term developed by Hepler and Strand in 1990.- United States :...
- Drug Information Pharmacist
- Home Health Pharmacist
- Hospital Pharmacist
A hospital pharmacy is concerned with pharmacy service to all types of hospital and differs considerably from a community pharmacy.Some pharmacists in hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical medication management issues whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex...
- Industrial Pharmacist
- Informatics Pharmacist
- Locum Pharmacist
- Managed Care Pharmacist
- Military Pharmacist
- Nuclear Pharmacist
- Oncology Pharmacist
- Pharmacist prescriber
- Regulatory-Affairs Pharmacist
- Veterinary Pharmacist
A Veterinary pharmacist is a specially trained pharmacist who dispenses veterinary medicines and supplies over-the-counter products and advice to owners of companion animals and livestock....
- Pharmacist Clinical Pathologist
Clinical pathology , Laboratory Medicine , Clinical analysis or Clinical/Medical Biology , is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids, such as...
- Pharmacist Clinical Toxicologist
Australia
The Australian Pharmacy Council is the independent accreditation agency for Australian pharmacists. It conducts examinations on behalf of the Pharmacy Board of Australia towards eligibility for registration. The
Australian College of PharmacyThe Australian College of Pharmacy is one of two providers of continuing professional development programmes for pharmacists in Australia—the other being the The Pharmaceutical Society of Australia...
provides continuing education programs for pharmacists.
WageA wage is a compensation, usually financial, received by workers in exchange for their labor.Compensation in terms of wages is given to workers and compensation in terms of salary is given to employees...
s for pharmacists in Australia appear to have stagnated. The award wages for a pharmacist is $812 a week. Pharmacist graduates are the lowest paid university graduates most years. Most pharmacists do earn above the award wage; the average male pharmacist earns $65,000, a female pharmacist averages $56,500. Over recent years, wages have stagnated, and even gone backwards. There are more graduates expected in the next few years making it even harder to get a job. Job security and increase in wages with regards to
CPIA consumer price index is a measure of the average price of consumer goods and services purchased by householdsCPI may also stand for:*Central Port Injection, see fuel injection...
could be unlikely. This is due to the large numbers of pharmacy graduates in recent years, and government desire to lower PBS costs. Contract and casual work is becoming more common. A contract pharmacist is self-employed and often called a locum; these pharmacists may be hired for one shift or for a longer period of time. There are accounts of underemployment and unemployment emerging recently.
Canada
The Canadian Pharmacists Association (CPhA) is the national professional organization for pharmacists in
CanadaCanada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. Specific requirements for practice vary across provinces, but generally include a Bachelor's of Science in Pharmacy from a recognized university, successful completion of a national board examination through the Pharmacy Examining Board of Canada, and practical experience through an apprenticeship/internship program.
The vast majority (80%) of Canada’s licensed pharmacists work in community pharmacies, another 15 percent in hospital or institutional pharmacies, and the remainder work in situations that may not legally require licensed pharmacists such as associations, pharmaceutical companies, and consulting firms. The wages for pharmacists, at about CAD $95,000, are slightly better than Australia but not as good as in the US. Wages being significantly higher in Canada than the prospect for most developing countries, recruitment of pharmacists from
South AfricaThe Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
and other countries with acute health workforce shortages to work in private franchise chains is subject to controversy.
History
In ancient Japan, the men who fulfilled roles similar to pharmacists were respected. The place of pharmacists in society was settled in the
Taihō CodeThe was an administrative reorganization enacted in 701 in Japan, at the end of the Asuka period. It was historically one of the . It was compiled at the direction of Prince Osakabe, Fujiwara no Fuhito and Awata no Mahito...
(701) and re-stated in the
Yōrō CodeThe was one iteration of several codes or governing rules compiled in early Nara period in Classical Japan. Major work on the Yōrō Code was completed in 718....
(718). Ranked positions in the pre-
HeianThe is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height...
Imperial court were established; and this organizational structure remained largely intact until the
Meiji RestorationThe , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
(1868). In this highly stable hierarchy, the pharmacists — and even
pharmacist assistantsA pharmacy technician, also sometimes known as a pharmaceutical technician, is a health care worker who performs pharmacy related functions, generally working under the direct supervision of a licensed pharmacist or other health professional...
— were assigned status superior to all others in health-related fields such as physicians and acupuncturists. In the Imperial household, the pharmacist was even ranked above the two personal physicians of the Emperor.
Contemporary
As of 1997, there were 46 universities of pharmacy in Japan, which graduated about 8000 students annually. Contemporary practice of clinical pharmacists in Japan (as evaluated in September 2000) focuses on dispensing of drugs, consultation with patients, supplying drug information, advising on prescription changes and amending prescriptions. These practices have been linked to decreases in the average number of drugs in prescriptions, drug costs and incidence of adverse drug events.
Tanzania
In
TanzaniaThe United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
, the practice of pharmacy is regulated by the national Pharmacy Board, which is also responsible for registration of pharmacists in the country. By international standards, the density of pharmacists is very low, with a mean of 0.18 per 10,000 population. The majority of pharmacists are found in urban areas, with some underserved regions having only 2 pharmacists per region. According to 2007-2009 data, the largest group of pharmacists was employed in the public sector (44%). Those working in private retail pharmacies were 23%, and the rest were mostly working for private wholesalers, pharmaceutical manufacturers, in academia/teaching, or with faith-based or non-governmental facilities. The salaries of pharmacists varied significantly depending on the place of work. Those who worked in the academia were the highest paid followed by those who worked in the multilateral non-governmental organizations. The public sector including public retail pharmacies as well as faith based organizations paid much less. The Ministry of Health salary scale for medical doctors was considerably higher than that of pharmacists despite having a difference of only one year of training.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, most pharmacists working in the
National Health ServiceThe National Health Service is the shared name of three of the four publicly funded healthcare systems in the United Kingdom. They provide a comprehensive range of health services, the vast majority of which are free at the point of use to residents of the United Kingdom...
practice in
hospital pharmacyA hospital pharmacy is concerned with pharmacy service to all types of hospital and differs considerably from a community pharmacy.Some pharmacists in hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical medication management issues whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex...
,
community pharmacyA community pharmacy is a community-based pharmacy. The main responsibilities of a community pharmacy include appropriate procurement, storage, dispensing, and documentation of medicines...
or in
primary care trustAn NHS primary care trust is a type of NHS trust, part of the National Health Service in England. PCTs commission primary, community and secondary care from providers. Until 31 may2011 they also provided community services directly. Collectively PCT are responsible for spending around 80% of the...
s. Pharmacists are able to undertake additional training in order to allow them to prescribe medicines for specific conditions.
In
British EnglishBritish English, or English , is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere...
(and to some extent
Australian EnglishAustralian English is the name given to the group of dialects spoken in Australia that form a major variety of the English language....
), the professional title known as “pharmacist” is also known as
“dispensing chemist”. A dispensing chemist usually operates from a pharmacy or chemist's shop (also called “drug store” elsewhere), and is allowed to fulfil
medical prescriptionA prescription is a health-care program implemented by a physician or other medical practitioner in the form of instructions that govern the plan of care for an individual patient. Prescriptions may include orders to be performed by a patient, caretaker, nurse, pharmacist or other therapist....
s as well as dispense
over-the-counter drugOver-the-counter drugs are medicines that may be sold directly to a consumer without a prescription from a healthcare professional, as compared to prescription drugs, which may be sold only to consumers possessing a valid prescription...
s and other health related goods.
The new professional role for pharmacists as prescriber has been recognized in the UK since May 2006, called the “Pharmacist Independent Prescriber”. Once qualified, a pharmacist independent prescriber is able to prescribe any licensed medicine for any medical condition within their competence, with the exception of controlled drugs.
United States
In the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, the majority (65%) of pharmacists work in retail settings, mostly as salaried employees but some as self-employed owners. About 22% work in hospitals, and the rest mainly in mail-order or
Internet pharmaciesOnline pharmacies, Internet pharmacies, or Mail Order Pharmacies are pharmacies that operate over the Internet and send the orders to customers.Online or internet pharmacies might include:...
, pharmaceutical wholesalers, offices of physicians, and the Federal Government.
All graduating pharmacists must now obtain the
Doctor of PharmacyA Doctor of Pharmacy is a professional doctorate degree in pharmacy. In some countries, it is a first professional degree, and a prerequisite for licensing to exercise the profession of pharmacist.-Kenya :...
(Pharm.D.) degree before they are eligible to sit for the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (
NAPLEXThe NAPLEX, also known as the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination, is a standard examination created by the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy to help individual state boards of pharmacy assess an individual's competency and knowledge so that he or she may be given a license to...
) to enter into pharmacy practice.
Education
Students must complete 4 years of graduate level training at a
pharmacy schoolThe basic requirement for pharmacists to be considered for registration is an undergraduate or postgraduate Pharmacy degree from a recognized university. In most countries this involves a four- or five-year course to attain a Master of Pharmacy...
, often after receiving a bachelors degree. A bachelors degree is not required as most pharmacy schools only require two years of undergraduate education and the completion of a list of prerequisites. Competition to obtain entry into pharmacy school, however, limits the number of students admitted without a bachelors degree. There are currently 116 accredited pharmacy schools in the United States (late 2009), and 6 of these schools offer "accelerated" 3 year PharmD programs by attending school almost year round - with fewer breaks for summer and holidays. There also is one fully accredited "distance/online" 4 year PharmD program offered by
Creighton UniversityCreighton University is a private, coeducational, Jesuit, Roman Catholic university located in Omaha, Nebraska, United States. Founded by the Society of Jesus in 1878, the school is one of 28 member institutions of the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities. The university is accredited by...
. Pharmacists receive a PharmD (Doctor of Pharmacy) upon graduation, and licensure after passing the
NAPLEXThe NAPLEX, also known as the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination, is a standard examination created by the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy to help individual state boards of pharmacy assess an individual's competency and knowledge so that he or she may be given a license to...
and MPJE.
Mandatory courses may include:
- Anatomy
Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...
- Biochemistry
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
- Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
- Communications / Public Speaking
Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners...
- Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
- General Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
- Humanities
The humanities are academic disciplines that study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytical, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences....
- Microbiology
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters or no cell at all . This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes...
- Molecular Biology
Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
- Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...
- Pharmaceutical Care
- Pharmaceutics
Pharmaceutics is the discipline of pharmacy that deals with all facets of the process of turning a new chemical entity into a medication able to be safely and effectively used by patients in the community. Pharmaceutics is the science of dosage form design...
- Pharmacology
Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function...
- Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
- Toxicology
Toxicology is a branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms...
Besides taking classes, additional requirements before graduating may include, for instance, a certain amount of hours for community service, e.g. working in hospitals, clinics, and retail.
Specialization and credentialing
American pharmacists can become certified in recognized specialty practice areas by passing an examination administered by one of several credentialing boards.
- The Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties certifies pharmacists in six specialties:
- Ambulatory care
Ambulatory care is a personal health care consultation, treatment or intervention using advanced medical technology or procedures delivered on an outpatient basis Ambulatory care is a personal health care consultation, treatment or intervention using advanced medical technology or procedures...
pharmacy (starting 2011)
- Nuclear pharmacy
Nuclear Pharmacy involves the preparation of radioactive materials that will be used to diagnose and treat specific diseases. It was the first pharmacy specialty established in 1978 by the Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties...
- Nutrition
Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet....
support pharmacy
- Oncology
Oncology is a branch of medicine that deals with cancer...
pharmacy
- Pharmacotherapy
Pharmacotherapy is the treatment of disease through the administration of drugs. As such, it is considered part of the larger category of therapy....
, which has two subspecialties: cardiologyCardiology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the heart . The field includes diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects, coronary artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease and electrophysiology...
and infectious diseaseInfectious diseases, also known as communicable diseases, contagious diseases or transmissible diseases comprise clinically evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism...
- Psychiatric
Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the study and treatment of mental disorders. These mental disorders include various affective, behavioural, cognitive and perceptual abnormalities...
pharmacy
- The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy
The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy is a non-profit organization which has established a voluntary professional certification program for pharmacists. Pharmacists must pass a written examination to become certified and must re-certify every five years...
certifies pharmacists in geriatricsGeriatrics is a sub-specialty of internal medicine and family medicine that focuses on health care of elderly people. It aims to promote health by preventing and treating diseases and disabilities in older adults. There is no set age at which patients may be under the care of a geriatrician, or...
specialty practice.
- The American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology
Toxicology is a branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms...
.
Earnings and wages
According to the 2010 "Pharmacy Compensation Survey":
- Directors of Pharmacy $125,200
- Retail Staff Pharmacists $113,600
- Hospital Staff Pharmacists $111,700
- Mail Order Staff Pharmacists $109,300
- Clinical Pharmacists $113,400
According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics -
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition:
- Median annual wages of wage and salary pharmacists in May 2008 were $106,410. The middle 50 percent earned between $92,670 and $121,310 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $77,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $131,440 a year.
Noted people who were pharmacists
- Hubert Humphrey
Hubert Horatio Humphrey, Jr. , served under President Lyndon B. Johnson as the 38th Vice President of the United States. Humphrey twice served as a United States Senator from Minnesota, and served as Democratic Majority Whip. He was a founder of the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party and...
, US Vice-President 1965-69
- Jim Wilson (Los Angeles)
Jim Wilson was a pioneer banker and businessman of the San Fernando Valley who was on the Los Angeles City Council from 1933 to 1941....
, city council member
See also
- Apothecary
Apothecary is a historical name for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses materia medica to physicians, surgeons and patients — a role now served by a pharmacist and some caregivers....
- Chemist
A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties such as density and acidity. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms...
- Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals
The Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals is a taxonomy focused to define and group together situations requiring a referral from pharmacists to physicians regarding the pharmacotherapy used by the patients. It has been published in 2008...
- Dispensing chemist
- History of pharmacy
The history of pharmacy as an independent science is relatively young. The origins of historiography pharmaceutical back to the first third of the nineteenth century which is when the first historiographies that while not touching all aspects of pharmaceutical history is the starting point for the...
- List of pharmacists
- List of pharmacy associations
- List of pharmacy schools
- Pharmaconomist
Pharmaconomist means expert in pharmaceuticals . Pharmaconomists are a pharmaceutical professional group in Denmark with a 3 year higher tertiary education...
- Pharmacy
Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs...
- Pharmacy Automation - The Tablet Counter
- Pharmacy technician
A pharmacy technician, also sometimes known as a pharmaceutical technician, is a health care worker who performs pharmacy related functions, generally working under the direct supervision of a licensed pharmacist or other health professional...
- Pharmacy residency
Pharmacy Residency is education a pharmacist can pursue beyond the degree required for licensing as a pharmacist .-In France:The residency lasts four years....
Further reading
Asai,T. (1985).
Nyokan Tūkai. Tokyo: Kōdan-Sha.
TitsinghIsaac Titsingh FRS was a Dutch surgeon, scholar, merchant-trader and ambassador.During a long career in East Asia, Titsingh was a senior official of the Dutch East India Company . He represented the European trading company in exclusive official contact with Tokugawa Japan...
, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/
Hayashi Gahō, also known as Hayashi Shunsai, was a Japanese Neo-Confucian scholar, teacher and administrator in the system of higher education maintained by the Tokugawa bakufu during the Edo period...
, 1652],
Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris:
Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and IrelandThe Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was established, according to its Royal Charter of 11 August 1824, to further "the investigation of subjects connected with and for the encouragement of science, literature and the arts in relation to Asia." From its incorporation the Society...
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...Click link for digitized, full-text copy of this book (in French)
External links