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Papiamento
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Papiamento (or Papiamentu) is the language spoken on the Caribbean islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao (the so-called "ABC islands").
Papiamento is a Portuguese creole language, with vocabulary influences from African languages, Spanish, Dutch, English and Arawak native languages. The Proto-Afro-Portuguese creole theory is the most widely accepted hypothesis about the genesis of Papiamentu.
Those who advocate an African origin feel that the greatest menace to the existence and further development of Papiamentu is that native speakers tend to deviate from its origins by replacing original African, Portuguese and Dutch words with Spanish and/or English equivalents, due mainly to the cultural influences of the United States, as well as nearby Venezuela.
History
The historical origins of Papiamento are still not very well known.
Discussion
Ask a question about 'Papiamento' Start a new discussion about 'Papiamento' Answer questions from other users |
Encyclopedia
Papiamento (or Papiamentu) is the language spoken on the Caribbean islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao (the so-called "ABC islands").
Papiamento is a Portuguese creole language, with vocabulary influences from African languages, Spanish, Dutch, English and Arawak native languages. The Proto-Afro-Portuguese creole theory is the most widely accepted hypothesis about the genesis of Papiamentu.
Those who advocate an African origin feel that the greatest menace to the existence and further development of Papiamentu is that native speakers tend to deviate from its origins by replacing original African, Portuguese and Dutch words with Spanish and/or English equivalents, due mainly to the cultural influences of the United States, as well as nearby Venezuela.
History
The historical origins of Papiamento are still not very well known. It is disputed whether Papiamento originated from Portuguese or from Spanish. Owing to the resemblance between Spanish and Portuguese, it is difficult to tell whether a particular word came from one or from the other, or even from Italian (old Genovese). In addition, some Arubans claim Papiamento to be of exclusively Arawak-Spanish origin and do not want to accept the African influence on the language, while others do not want to accept the Native American influence on Papiamento and therefore maintain it to be an exclusively Afro-Portuguese language that developed first on Curaçao and then spread to Aruba. While such discussions often are based on historical evidence selectively interpreted for nationalist purposes, they nevertheless further complicate the debate on the origins of Papiamento.
However, historical constraints, core vocabulary and grammatical features that Papiamento shares with Cape Verdean Creole suggest that the basic ingredients are Portuguese, and that other influences occurred at a later time (17th and 18th century, respectively). The name of the language itself comes from papear ("to chat", "to talk"), a word present in Portuguese; compare with Papiá Kristang ("Christian talk"), a Portuguese-based creole of Malaysia and Singapore, and the Cape Verdean Creole word papiâ ("to talk"). Spain claimed dominion over the islands in the 15th century, but made little use of them. In 1634, the Dutch-based West India Company (WIC) took possession of the islands, deporting most of the small remaining Arawak and Spanish population to the continent, and turned them into the hub of the Dutch slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean. An outline of the competing theories is provided below.
Local development theory
There are various local development theories. One such theory proposes that Papiamento developed in the Caribbean from an original Portuguese-African pidgin used for communication between African slaves and Portuguese slavetraders, with later Dutch and Spanish (and even some Aruac) influences.
The Judaeo-Portuguese population of the ABC islands increased substantially after 1654, when the Portuguese recovered the Dutch-held territories in Northeast Brazil causing most of the Portuguese-speaking Jews in those lands to flee from religious persecution.
The precise role of Sephardic Jews in the early development is unclear, but it is certain that Jews play a prominent role in the later development of Papiamento. Many early residents of Curaçao were Sephardic Jews either from Portugal, Spain, or Portuguese Brazil. Therefore, it can be assumed that Ladino was brought to the island of Curaçao, where it gradually spread to other parts of the community. As the Jewish community became the prime merchants and traders in the area, business and everyday trading was conducted in Papiamento with some Ladino influences. While various nations owned the island and official languages changed with ownership, Papiamento became the constant language of the residents.
African origin theory
A more recent theory holds that the origins of Papiamento lie in the Afro-Portuguese creoles that arose almost a century earlier, in the west coast of Africa and in the Cape Verde islands. From the 16th to the late 17th century, most of the slaves taken to the Caribbean came from Portuguese trading posts ("factories") in those regions. Around those ports there developed several Portuguese-African pidgins and creoles, such as Guinea-Bissau Creole, Mina, Cape Verdean Creole, Angolar, and Guene. The latter bears strong resemblances to Papiamento. According to this theory, Papiamento was derived from those pre-existing pidgins/creoles, especially Guene, which were brought to the ABC islands by slaves and/or traders from Cape Verde and West Africa.
Some specifically claim that Afro-Portuguese mother language of Papiamentu arose from a mixture of the Mina pidgin/creole (a mixture of Cape Verdean pidgin/creole with Twi) and the Angolar creole (derived from languages of Angola and Congo).Proponents of this theory of Papiamento contend that it can easily be compared and linked with other Portuguese creoles, especially the African ones (namely Forro, Guinea-Bissau Creole, and the Cape Verdean Creole). For instance, Compare mi ("I" in Cape Verdean Creole and Papiamento) or bo (meaning you in both creoles). Mi is from the Portuguese mim "me", and bo is from Portuguese vós "you". The use of "b" instead of "v" is very common in the African Portuguese Creoles.
Papiamento is, in some degree, intelligible with Cape Verdean creoles and could be explained by the immigration of Portuguese Sephardic Jews from Cape Verde to these Caribbean islands, although this same fact could also be used by dissenters to explain a later Portuguese influence on an already existing Spanish-based creole.
Another comparison is the use of the verb ta and taba ta from vernacular Portuguese tá (an aphesis of estar, "to be" or está, "it is") with verbs where Portuguese does and with others where it does not use it: "Mi ta + verb" or "Mi taba ta + verb", also the rule in the São Vicente Creole and other Barlavento Cape Verdean Creoles . These issues can also be seen in other Portuguese Creoles (Martinus 1996; see also Fouse 2002 and McWhorter 2000).
Present status
Many Papiamento speakers are also able to speak Dutch, English and Spanish. Venezuelan Spanish is a constant influence today, especially in Aruba. In the Netherlands Antilles, Papiamento was made an official language on March 7, 2007.
Dialects
Papiamento has two main dialects: Papiamento in Aruba and Papiamentu in Curaçao and Bonaire. Although the Papiamentu in Curaçao and Bonaire are largely the same, there are still minor differences.
(Aruban) Papiamento sounds much more Spanish. The most apparent difference between the two dialects is given away in the name difference. Whereas Curaçao and Bonaire opted for a phonologically based spelling, Aruba uses an etymologically based spelling. Many words in Aruba end with "o" while that same word ends with "u" in Curaçao and Bonaire. And even on Curaçao, the use of the u-ending is still more pronounced among the Sephardic Jewish population. Similary, there is also a difference between the usage of "k" in Curaçao and Bonaire and "c" in Aruba.
For example:
Papiamento: Palo (tree) Cas (house)
Papiamentu: Palu (tree) Kas (house)
Furthermore, there is also an intonation and lexical difference between Papiamento and Papiamentu.
Phonology
Vowels and diphthongs
Most Papiamento vowels are based on Ibero-Romance vowels, but some are also based on Dutch vowels like : ee , ui , ie , oe , ij/ei , oo , and aa .
Papiamento has the following nine vowels. The orthography (writing system) of Curaçao has one symbol for each vowel.
| IPA | Curaçao orthography | Aruba orthography |
|---|
| a | a in kana | a in cana | | e | e in sker, nechi | e in sker (= to rip) | | ? | è in skèr, nèchi | e in sker (= scissors) | | i | i in chikí | i in chikitin | | o | o in bonchi, doló | o in dolor | | ? | ò in bònchi, dòler | o in dollar | | u | u in kunuku | u in cunucu | | ø | ù in brùg | u in brug | | y | ü in hür | uu in huur |
In addition to the vowels listed above, schwa also occurs in Papiamento. The letter e is pronounced as schwa in the final unstressed syllables of words such as agradabel and komader. Other vowels in unstressed syllables can become somewhat centralized (schwa-like) in rapid casual speech.
Stress and tone
Polysyllabic words that end in vowels are stressed on the next-to-last syllable; most words ending in consonants are stressed on the final syllable. There are exceptions. When a word deviates from these rules, the stressed vowel should be indicated by an acute accent mark. The accent marks are often omitted in casual writing.
Papiamento words have distinct tone patterns. According to recent linguistic research, there are two classes of words: those which typically have rising pitch on the stressed syllable, and those which typically have falling pitch on the stressed syllable. The latter category includes most of the two-syllable verbs in the language. Any given word's tone contours may change depending on discursive factors such as whether the sentence is affirmative, interrogative, or imperative.
Grammar
Vocabulary
Most of the vocabulary is derived from Spanish and Portuguese and most of the time the real origin is unknown due to the great similarity between the two Iberian languages and the adaptations required by Papiamentu.
Linguistic studies have shown that roughly two thirds of the words in Papiamentu's present vocabulary are of Iberian origin, a quarter are of Dutch origin,and some of Native American origin and the rest come from other tongues. A recent study by Buurt & Joubert inventarised several hundred words of indigenous Arawak origins
Examples of words of Iberian and Roman, Latin origin, which are impossible to label as either Portuguese or Spanish:
- por fabor = please - Spanish/Portuguese, por favor
- señora = mrs, madam - Spanish, señora'; 'Portuguese, senhora;
- kuá? = which? Spanish, cuál?; Portuguese, qual?;
- cuántu? = how many? - Spanish, cuánto?"; Portuguese, quanto?;
While the presence of word-final can easily be traced to Portuguese, the diphthongization of some vowels is characteristic of Spanish. The use of (rather than ) is difficult to interpret; although the two are separate phonemes in standard Portuguese, they merge in the dialects of northern Portugal, just like they do in Spanish. Also, a sound-shift could have occurred in the direction of Spanish, whose influence on Papiamento came later than that of Portuguese.
Other words can have dual origin, and certainly dual influence. For instance: subrino (nephew): sobrinho in Portuguese, sobrino in Spanish. The pronunciation of "o" as is traceable to Portuguese, while the use of "n" instead of "nh" (IPA ) in the ending "-no", relates to Spanish.
Portuguese origin words:
- sapatu = shoe - Spanish, zapato; Portuguese, sapato;
- kacho = dog - Spanish, cachorro; (puppy); Portuguese, cachorro (dog or puppy);
- bisiña= neighbour - Spanish, vecino, vecina; Portuguese, vizinho, vizinha;
- galiña= hen or chicken - Spanish, gallina; Portuguese, galinha;
Spanish origin words:
- siudat (ciudadnan) = city - Spanish, ciudad; Portuguese, cidade
- sombré = hat - Spanish, sombrero; Portuguese, chapéu
- karson = trousers - Spanish, calzón; Portuguese, calção
- homber = man - Spanish, hombre; Portuguese, homem
Dutch origin words:
- apel = apple - Dutch, appel
- blou = blue - Dutch, blauw
- buki = book - Dutch, boekje
- lesa = to read - Dutch, lezen
English origin words;
Italian origin words:
- kushina = kitchen - Italian "cucina"; Spanish "cocina"
- lanterna = lantern - Italian "lanterna"; Portuguese, "lanterna" too.
Native American words:
- horkan = hurricane - Taino, hurakan; Carib, yuracan, hyoracan;
Dictionaries
- Mansur, Jossy M. (1991) Dictionary English-Papiamento Papiamento-English. Oranjestad: Edicionnan Clasico Diario
- Betty Ratzlaff (2008) Papiamentu-Ingles, Dikshonario Bilingual e di dos edishon. Bonaire: St. Jong Bonaire
-
Writing system
There are two orthographies: a more phonetic one called Papiamentu (in Curaçao and Bonaire), and the etymological spelling used in Aruba.
Examples
Phrase samples
NOTE: These examples are from Curaçao Papiamentu and not from Aruban Papiamento.
- Kon ta bai? or Kon ta k'e bida?: "How are you?" or "How is life?", Portuguese, Como vai?/Como está a vida?, Spanish ¿Cómo te va? ¿Cómo te va la vida?
- Por fabor: "Please" Portuguese/Spanish por favor
- Danki: "Thank you" Dutch, Dank u
- Ainda no: "Not yet" Portuguese Ainda não
- Mi (ta) stima bo: "I love you" Portuguese Eu (te) estimo (você) / Eu te amo
- Laga nos ban sali!: "Let's go out!", Spanish ¡Vamos a salir!
- Kòrda skirbi mi bèk mas lihé posibel!: "Remember to write me back as soon as possible!" Portuguese: Recorde-se de escrever assim que for possivel.
- Bo mama ta mashá simpátiko: "Your mother is very nice" Portuguese Tua/Sua mãe é muito simpática.
Comparison of vocabularies
This section provides a comparison of the vocabularies of Portuguese, Papiamento and the Portuguese creoles of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde. Spanish also shown for contrast.
| English | Portuguese | Papiamentu | Guinea-Bissau | Cape Verdean* ** | Spanish |
|---|
| Welcome | Bem-vindo | Bon Biní | Bô bim drito | Bem-vindo*** | Bienvenido | | Good day | Bom Dia | Bon dia | Bon dia | Bon dia | Buenos días | | Thank you | Obrigado | Danki | Obrigadu | Obrigadu | Gracias | | How are you? | Como vais?/como vai? | Kon ta bai? | Kumá ku bo na bai? | Módi ki bu sa ta bai? | ¿Cómo te va? | | Very good | Muito bom | Mashá bon | Mutu bon | Mutu bon | Muy bien | | I am fine | Eu estou bom/bem | Mi ta bon | N' sta bon | N sta dretu | Yo estoy bien | | I, I am | Eu, Eu Sou | Mi, Mi ta | N', Mi i | N, Mi e | Yo, yo soy | | Have a nice day | Passa um bom dia | Pasa un bon dia | Pasa un bon dia | Pasa un bon dia | Pasa un buen dia | | See you later | Vejo-te depois/ Te vejo depois | Te aweró | N' ta odjá-u dipus | N ta odjâ-u dipôs, Te lógu | Te veo después | | Food | Comida | Kuminda | Bianda | Kumida | Comida | | Bread | Pão | Pan | Pon | Pon | Pan | | Juice | Sumo/Suco | Djus | Sumu | Sumu | Zumo / Jugo | | I love Curaçao | Eu gosto de Curaçao | Mi stima Kòrsou | N' gosta di Curaçao | N gosta di Curaçao | Yo amo Curazao | |
*Santiago Creole variant
**Writing system used in this example: ALUPEC
***Portuguese expression used in creole.
Bibliography
- Efraim Frank Martinus (1996) The Kiss of a Slave: Papiamentu's West-African Connections. University of Amsterdam Press.
- Gary Fouse (2002) The Story of Papiamentu. New York: University Press of America
- John H. Holm (1989) Pidgins and Creoles Volume One. Theory and Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- John McWhorter (2000) The Missing Spanish Creoles: Recovering the Birth of Plantation Contact Language. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Gerard van Buurt & Sidney M Joubert (1997) Stemmen uit het Verleden, Indiaanse Woorden in het Papiamentu. Curaçao
See also
External links
- : Ethnologue report on Papiamentu.
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- A Leading Curaçao Newspaper in Papiamentu
- I-News in Papiamento (and Dutch)
- Listen to Papiamentu Radio
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- a simple online translation English - Papiamentu
- For a discussion about the origins of Papiamentu, see , an essay by Attila Narin.
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