Pancreatitis is
inflammationInflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process...
of the
pancreasThe pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as well as a digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that assist...
. It occurs when pancreatic enzymes (especially
trypsinTrypsin is a serine protease found in the digestive system of many vertebrates, where it hydrolyses proteins. Trypsin is produced in the pancreas as the inactive proenzyme trypsinogen. Trypsin cleaves peptide chains mainly at the carboxyl side of the amino acids lysine or arginine, except when...
) that digest food are activated in the pancreas instead of the small intestine. It may be
acuteAcute pancreatitis or acute pancreatic necrosis is a sudden inflammation of the pancreas. It can have severe complications and high mortality despite treatment...
– beginning suddenly and lasting a few days, or
chronicChronic pancreatitis is a long-standing inflammation of the pancreas that alters its normal structure and functions. It can present as episodes of acute inflammation in a previously injured pancreas, or as chronic damage with persistent pain or malabsorption....
– occurring over many years. It has multiple causes and symptoms.
Signs and symptoms
The most common symptoms of pancreatitis are severe upper
abdominalIn vertebrates such as mammals the abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis. The region enclosed by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity...
pain
radiatingReferred pain is pain perceived at a location other than the site of the painful stimulus. An example is the case of ischemia brought on by a myocardial infarction , where pain is often felt in the neck, shoulders, and back rather than in the chest, the site of the injury...
to the back,
nauseaNausea , is a sensation of unease and discomfort in the upper stomach with an involuntary urge to vomit. It often, but not always, precedes vomiting...
, and
vomitingVomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose...
that is worsened with eating. The physical exam will vary depending on severity and presence of
internal bleedingInternal bleeding is bleeding occurring inside the body. It can be a serious medical emergency depending on where it occurs , and can potentially cause death and cardiac arrest if proper medical treatment is not received quickly....
.
Blood pressureBlood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the principal vital signs. When used without further specification, "blood pressure" usually refers to the arterial pressure of the systemic circulation. During each heartbeat, BP varies...
may be elevated by pain or decreased by
dehydrationIn physiology and medicine, dehydration is defined as the excessive loss of body fluid. It is literally the removal of water from an object; however, in physiological terms, it entails a deficiency of fluid within an organism...
or bleeding.
HeartHeart rate is the number of heartbeats per unit of time, typically expressed as beats per minute . Heart rate can vary as the body's need to absorb oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide changes, such as during exercise or sleep....
and
respiratory rateRespiratory rate is also known by respiration rate, pulmonary ventilation rate, ventilation rate, or breathing frequency is the number of breaths taken within a set amount of time, typically 60 seconds....
s are often elevated. The abdomen is usually
tenderIn medicine, tenderness is pain or discomfort when an affected area is touched.Rebound tenderness is an indication of peritonitis....
but to a lesser degree than the pain itself. As is common in abdominal disease, bowel sounds may be reduced from reflex
bowel paralysisIleus is a disruption of the normal propulsive ability of the gastrointestinal tract.Ileus is commonly defined simply as bowel obstruction. However, authoritative sources define it as decreased motor activity of the GI tract due to non-mechanical causes...
.
FeverFever is a common medical sign characterized by an elevation of temperature above the normal range of due to an increase in the body temperature regulatory set-point. This increase in set-point triggers increased muscle tone and shivering.As a person's temperature increases, there is, in...
or
jaundiceJaundice is a yellowish pigmentation of the skin, the conjunctival membranes over the sclerae , and other mucous membranes caused by hyperbilirubinemia . This hyperbilirubinemia subsequently causes increased levels of bilirubin in the extracellular fluid...
may be present. Chronic pancreatitis can lead to diabetes or
pancreatic cancerPancreatic cancer refers to a malignant neoplasm of the pancreas. The most common type of pancreatic cancer, accounting for 95% of these tumors is adenocarcinoma, which arises within the exocrine component of the pancreas. A minority arises from the islet cells and is classified as a...
. Unexplained weight loss may occur from a lack of pancreatic enzymes hindering
digestionDigestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller components that are more easily absorbed into a blood stream, for instance. Digestion is a form of catabolism: a breakdown of large food molecules to smaller ones....
.
Causes
Eighty percent of pancreatitis is caused by alcohol and gallstones. Gallstones are the single most common etiology of acute pancreatitis.
AlcoholIn chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
is the single most common etiology of chronic pancreatitis.
Some medications are associated, commonly including the
AIDSAcquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus...
drugs
didanosineDidanosine is sold under the trade names Videx and Videx EC. It is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor, effective against HIV and used in combination with other antiretroviral drug therapy as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy .-History:The related pro-drug of didanosine,...
and
pentamidinePentamidine is an antimicrobial medication given for prevention and treatment of Pneumocystis pneumonia caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii , a severe interstitial type of pneumonia often seen in patients with HIV infection...
, diuretics, the anticonvulsant
valproic acidValproic acid is a chemical compound that has found clinical use as an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug, primarily in the treatment of epilepsy, bipolar disorder, and, less commonly, major depression. It is also used to treat migraine headaches and schizophrenia...
, the chemotherapeutic agents L-asparaginase and
azathioprineAzathioprine is a purine analogue immunosuppressive drug. It is used to prevent organ rejection following organ transplantation and to treat a vast array of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, pemphigus, inflammatory bowel disease , multiple sclerosis, autoimmune hepatitis, atopic...
,
estrogenEstrogens , oestrogens , or œstrogens, are a group of compounds named for their importance in the estrous cycle of humans and other animals. They are the primary female sex hormones. Natural estrogens are steroid hormones, while some synthetic ones are non-steroidal...
by way of
increased blood triglyceridesIn medicine, hypertriglyceridemia denotes high blood levels of triglycerides, the most abundant fatty molecule in most organisms. It has been associated with atherosclerosis, even in the absence of hypercholesterolemia . It can also lead to pancreatitis in excessive concentrations In medicine,...
, and cholesterol-lowering statins.
There is an
inherited formHereditary Pancreatitis was first described in 1952 by Comfort and Steinberg but it was not until 1996 that Whitcomb et al isolated the first responsible mutation in the cationic trypsinogen gene on the long arm of chromosome seven .The term "hereditary pancreatitis" is used when a genetic defect...
that results in the activation of
trypsinogenTrypsinogen is the precursor form or zymogen of the pancreatic enzyme trypsin. It is found in pancreatic juice, along with amylase, lipase, and chymotrypsinogen. It is activated by enteropeptidase, which is found in the intestinal mucosa, to form trypsin. Once activated, the trypsin can activate...
within the pancreas, leading to autodigestion. Involved genes may include
Trypsin 1Trypsin-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRSS1 gene.- Function :This gene encodes a trypsinogen, which is a member of the trypsin family of serine proteases. This enzyme is secreted by the pancreas and cleaved to its active form in the small intestine. It is active on peptide...
, which codes for trypsinogen,
SPINK1Pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor also known as serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 or tumor-associated trypsin inhibitor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SPINK1 gene....
, which codes for a
trypsin inhibitorTrypsin inhibitors are chemicals that reduce the availability of trypsin, an enzyme essential to nutrition of many animals, including humans.There are four commercial sources of trypsin inhibitors....
, or
cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulatorCystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CFTR gene.CFTR is a ABC transporter-class ion channel that transports chloride and thiocyanate ions across epithelial cell membranes...
.
Other common causes include
traumaTrauma can refer to:-In psychology and medicine:* Trauma , an often serious and body-altering physical injury, such as the removal of a limb...
,
steroidA steroid is a type of organic compound that contains a characteristic arrangement of four cycloalkane rings that are joined to each other. Examples of steroids include the dietary fat cholesterol, the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone, and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone.The core...
use,
mumpsMumps is a viral disease of the human species, caused by the mumps virus. Before the development of vaccination and the introduction of a vaccine, it was a common childhood disease worldwide...
,
autoimmune diseaseAutoimmune pancreatitis is an increasingly recognized type of chronic pancreatitis that can be difficult to distinguish from pancreatic carcinoma but which responds to treatment with corticosteroids, particularly prednisone...
,
scorpionScorpions are predatory arthropod animals of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida. They have eight legs and are easily recognized by the pair of grasping claws and the narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger...
stings, high blood calcium, high blood triglycerides,
hypothermiaHypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below the required temperature for normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of through biologic homeostasis or thermoregulation...
, and
endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographyEndoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography is a technique that combines the use of endoscopy and fluoroscopy to diagnose and treat certain problems of the biliary or pancreatic ductal systems...
(ERCP).
Pancreas divisumPancreas or Pancreatic divisum is a congenital anomaly in the anatomy of the ducts of the pancreas in which a single pancreatic duct is not formed, but rather remains as two distinct dorsal and ventral ducts.-Causes:...
is a common congenital malformation of the pancreas that may underlie some recurrent cases. Pregnancy can be a cause, possibly by increasing blood triglycerides.
Diabetes mellitus type 2Diabetes mellitus type 2formerly non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus or adult-onset diabetesis a metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency. Diabetes is often initially managed by increasing exercise and...
is associated with a 2.8-fold higher risk.
Less common causes include
pancreatic cancerPancreatic cancer refers to a malignant neoplasm of the pancreas. The most common type of pancreatic cancer, accounting for 95% of these tumors is adenocarcinoma, which arises within the exocrine component of the pancreas. A minority arises from the islet cells and is classified as a...
, pancreatic duct stones,
vasculitisVasculitis refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders that are characterized by inflammatory destruction of blood vessels. Both arteries and veins are affected. Lymphangitis is sometimes considered a type of vasculitis...
(inflammation of the small blood vessels in the pancreas),
coxsackievirusCoxsackievirus is a virus that belongs to a family of non enveloped linear positive-sense ssRNA viruses, Picornaviridae and the genus Enterovirus, which also includes poliovirus and echovirus. Enteroviruses are among the most common and important human pathogens and ordinarily its members are...
infection, and
porphyriaPorphyrias are a group of inherited or acquired disorders of certain enzymes in the heme bio-synthetic pathway . They are broadly classified as acute porphyrias and cutaneous porphyrias, based on the site of the overproduction and accumulation of the porphyrins...
—particularly
acute intermittent porphyriaAcute intermittent porphyria is a rare autosomal dominant metabolic disorder affecting the production of heme, the oxygen-binding prosthetic group of hemoglobin. It is characterized by a deficiency of the enzyme porphobilinogen deaminase. Acute intermittent porphyria is the second most common...
and
erythropoietic protoporphyriaErythropoietic protoporphyria is a relatively mild form of porphyria, although very painful, which arises from a deficiency in the enzyme ferrochelatase, leading to abnormally high levels of protoporphyrin in the tissue...
.
Diagnosis
Diagnosing pancreatitis requires two of the following:
- Characteristic abdominal pain
- Blood amylase
Amylase is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of starch into sugars. Amylase is present in human saliva, where it begins the chemical process of digestion. Food that contains much starch but little sugar, such as rice and potato, taste slightly sweet as they are chewed because amylase turns...
or lipaseA lipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation or cleavage of fats . Lipases are a subclass of the esterases.Lipases perform essential roles in the digestion, transport and processing of dietary lipids in most, if not all, living organisms...
at least three times normal
- Abdominal ultrasound is generally performed first, which is advantageous for the diagnosis of the causes of the pancreas, for example, detecting gallstones, diagnosing alcoholic fatty liver (combined with history of alcohol consumption). They are both the main causes of pancreatitis. Abdominal ultrasound also shows an inflamed pancreatitis clearly. It is convenient, simple, non-invasive, inexpensive.
- Characteristic CT scan
Amylase or lipase is frequently part of the diagnosis; lipase is generally considered a better indicator, but this is disputed.
Cholecystitis-Signs and symptoms:Cholecystitis usually presents as a pain in the right upper quadrant. This is known as biliary colic. This is initially intermittent, but later usually presents as a constant, severe pain. During the initial stages, the pain may be felt in an area totally separate from the site...
, perforated peptic ulcer,
bowel infarctionBowel infarction or "bowel death" results from a severely restricted blood supply to part of the bowel; this can in turn be due to an uncorrected bowel twist or bowel strangulation, or to occlusion of one of the mesenteric arteries....
, and
diabetic ketoacidosisDiabetic ketoacidosis is a potentially life-threatening complication in patients with diabetes mellitus. It happens predominantly in those with type 1 diabetes, but it can occur in those with type 2 diabetes under certain circumstances...
can mimic pancreatitis by causing similar abdominal pain and elevated enzymes. The diagnosis can be confirmed by
ultrasoundDiagnostic sonography is an ultrasound-based diagnostic imaging technique used for visualizing subcutaneous body structures including tendons, muscles, joints, vessels and internal organs for possible pathology or lesions...
and/or CT.
Treatment
The treatment of pancreatitis is supportive and depends on severity.
MorphineMorphine is a potent opiate analgesic medication and is considered to be the prototypical opioid. It was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, first distributed by same in 1817, and first commercially sold by Merck in 1827, which at the time was a single small chemists' shop. It was more...
is preferred for pain relief. Oral intake, especially fats, are restricted.
FluidsFluid replacement or fluid resuscitation is the medical practice of replenishing bodily fluid lost through sweating, bleeding, fluid shifts or other pathologic processes. Fluids can be replaced via oral administration , intravenous administration, rectally, or hypodermoclysis, the direct injection...
and electrolytes are replaced intravenously. When possible, the underlying cause is treated, such as by ERCP for gallstones or antibiotics for a bacterial infection. The patient is monitored for complications.
Prognosis
Several scoring systems are used to predict the severity of an attack of pancreatitis. They each combine demographic and laboratory data to estimate severity or probability of death. Examples include
APACHE IIAPACHE II is a severity-of-disease classification system , one of several ICU scoring systems...
,
Ranson, and Glasgow. Apache II is available on admission; Glasgow and Ranson are simpler but cannot be determined for 48 hours. One form of the Glasgow criteria suggests that a case be considered severe if at least three of the following are true:
- Age > 55 years
- Blood levels:
- Oxygen
Hypoxemia is generally defined as decreased partial pressure of oxygen in blood, sometimes specifically as less than or causing hemoglobin oxygen saturation of less than 90%.-Distinction from anemia and hypoxia:...
< 60mmHg or 7.9kPa
- White blood cells
Leukocytosis is a raised white blood cell count above the normal range in the blood. It is frequently a sign of an inflammatory response, most commonly the result of infection, and is observed in certain parasitic infections...
> 15
- Calcium < 2 mmol/L
- Urea
Hyperuricemia is a level of uric acid in the blood that is abnormally high. In humans, the upper end of the normal range is 360 µmol/L for women and 400 µmol/L for men.-Causes:...
> 16 mmol/L
- Lactate dehydrogenase
Lactate dehydrogenase is an enzyme present in a wide variety of organisms, including plants and animals.Lactate dehydrogenases exist in four distinct enzyme classes. Two of them are cytochrome c-dependent enzymes, each acting on either D-lactate or L-lactate...
(LDH) > 600iu/L
- Aspartate transaminase
Aspartate transaminase , also called aspartate aminotransferase or serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase , is a pyridoxal phosphate -dependent transaminase enzyme . AST catalyzes the reversible transfer of an α-amino group between aspartate and glutamate and, as such, is an important enzyme in...
(AST) > 200iu/L
- Albumin
Hypoalbuminemia is a medical condition where levels of albumin in blood serum are abnormally low. It is a specific form of hypoproteinemia.Albumin is a major protein in the human body, making up about 60% of total human plasma protein by mass...
< 32g/L
- Glucose
Hyperglycemia or Hyperglycæmia, or high blood sugar, is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma. This is generally a glucose level higher than 13.5mmol/l , but symptoms may not start to become noticeable until even higher values such as 15-20 mmol/l...
> 10 mmol/L
Complications
Early complications include shock, infection,
systemic inflammatory response syndromeSystemic inflammatory response syndrome is an inflammatory state affecting the whole body, frequently a response of the immune system to infection, but not necessarily so...
, low blood calcium, high blood glucose, and
dehydrationIn physiology and medicine, dehydration is defined as the excessive loss of body fluid. It is literally the removal of water from an object; however, in physiological terms, it entails a deficiency of fluid within an organism...
. Blood loss, dehydration, and fluid leaking into the
abdominal cavityThe abdominal cavity is the body cavity of the human body that holds the bulk of the viscera. It is located below the thoracic cavity, and above the pelvic cavity. Its dome-shaped roof is the thoracic diaphragm , and its oblique floor is the pelvic inlet...
can lead to kidney failure. Respiratory complications are often
severeAcute respiratory distress syndrome , also known as respiratory distress syndrome or adult respiratory distress syndrome is a serious reaction to various forms of injuries to the lung....
.
Pleural effusionPleural effusion is excess fluid that accumulates between the two pleural layers, the fluid-filled space that surrounds the lungs. Excessive amounts of such fluid can impair breathing by limiting the expansion of the lungs during ventilation.-Pathophysiology:...
is usually present. Shallow breathing from pain can lead to
lung collapseAtelectasis is defined as the collapse or closure of alveoli resulting in reduced or absent gas exchange. It may affect part or all of one lung. It is a condition where the alveoli are deflated, as distinct from pulmonary consolidation.It is a very common finding in chest x-rays and other...
. Pancreatic enzymes may attack the lungs, causing
inflammationPneumonitis or pulmonitis is a general term that refers to inflammation of lung tissue.Pneumonia is pneumonitis combined with consolidation and exudation...
.
Late complications include recurrent pancreatitis and the development of
pancreatic pseudocystA pancreatic pseudocyst is a circumscribed collection of fluid rich in pancreatic enzymes, blood, and necrotic tissue, typically located in the lesser sac of the abdomen....
s—collections of pancreatic secretions that have been walled off by scar tissue. These may cause pain, become infected, rupture and bleed, block the bile duct and cause jaundice, or migrate around the abdomen. Acute necrotizing pancreatitis can lead to a
pancreatic abscessPancreatic abscess is a late complication of acute necrotizing pancreatitis, occurring more than 4 weeks after the initial attack. A pancreatic abscess is a collection of pus resulting from tissue necrosis, liquefaction, and infection...
, a collection of
pusPus is a viscous exudate, typically whitish-yellow, yellow, or yellow-brown, formed at the site of inflammatory during infection. An accumulation of pus in an enclosed tissue space is known as an abscess, whereas a visible collection of pus within or beneath the epidermis is known as a pustule or...
caused by
necrosisNecrosis is the premature death of cells in living tissue. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, toxins, or trauma. This is in contrast to apoptosis, which is a naturally occurring cause of cellular death...
,
liquefactionLiquefaction may refer to:* Liquefaction, the general process of becoming liquid* Soil liquefaction, the process by which sediments become suspended* Liquefaction of gases in physics, chemistry, and thermal engineering* Liquefactive necrosis in pathology...
, and
infectionAn infection is the colonization of a host organism by parasite species. Infecting parasites seek to use the host's resources to reproduce, often resulting in disease...
. This happens in approximately 3% of cases, or almost 60% of cases involving more than two pseudocysts and gas in the pancreas.
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