Oral microbiology
Encyclopedia
Oral microbiology is the study of the microorganism
s of the oral cavity and the interactions between the oral microorganisms with each other and with the host. Of particular interest is the role of oral microorganisms in the two major dental diseases: dental caries
and periodontal disease
.
The mouth harbors a diverse, abundant and complex microbial community. This highly diverse microflora inhabits the various surfaces of the normal mouth. Bacteria
accumulate on both the hard and soft oral tissues in biofilm
s. Bacterial adhesion
is particularly important for oral bacteria.
Oral bacteria have evolved mechanisms to sense their environment and evade or modify the host. Bacteria occupy the ecological niche provided by both the tooth
surface and gingival epithelium
. However, a highly efficient innate host defense system constantly monitors the bacterial colonization and prevents bacterial invasion of local tissues. A dynamic equilibrium exists between dental plaque
bacteria and the innate host defense system.
. The oral cavity of the new-born baby does not contain bacteria but rapidly becomes colonized with bacteria such as Streptococcus salivarius
. With the appearance of the teeth during the first year colonization by Streptococcus mutans
and Streptococcus sanguinis
occurs as these organisms colonise the dental surface and gingiva. Other strains of streptococci adhere strongly to the gums and cheeks but not to the teeth. The gingival crevice area (supporting structures of the teeth) provides a habitat for a variety of anaerobic species. Bacteroides and spirochetes colonize the mouth around puberty.
is the most studied and is considered as one of the main etiological bacteria of periodontitis. Treponema denticola is a motile and highly proteolytic bacterium.
1/ Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG)
2/ Vincent angina with a membrane covering the throat area
is a Gram-negative oral anaerobe strongly associated with chronic adult periodontitis. The bacterium produces a number of well-characterized virulence factors and can be manipulated genetically. The availability of the genome sequence is aiding our understanding of the biology of P. gingivalis and how it interacts with the environment, other bacteria and the human host.
is considered an oral pathogen due to its virulence factors, its association with localized aggressive periodontitis in young adolescents, and studies indicating that it can cause bone loss.
s, a feature of which is inter-bacterial communication. Cell-cell contact, is mediated by specific protein adhesin
s and often, as in the case of inter-species aggregation, by complementary polysaccharide receptors. Another method of communication involves cell-cell signalling molecules, which are of two classes: those used for intra-species and those used for inter-species signalling. An example of intra-species communication is quorum sensing
. Oral bacteria have been shown to produce small peptides, such as competence stimulating peptides, which can help promote single-species biofilm formation. A common form of inter-species signalling is mediated by 4, 5-dihydroxy-2, 3-pentanedione (DPD) or Autoinducer-2
(Al-2).
can produce antibodies that inhibit the cariogenic process. Periodontal vaccines are less well developed, but some antigenic targets have been identified.
Microorganism
A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters, or no cell at all...
s of the oral cavity and the interactions between the oral microorganisms with each other and with the host. Of particular interest is the role of oral microorganisms in the two major dental diseases: dental caries
Dental caries
Dental caries, also known as tooth decay or a cavity, is an irreversible infection usually bacterial in origin that causes demineralization of the hard tissues and destruction of the organic matter of the tooth, usually by production of acid by hydrolysis of the food debris accumulated on the...
and periodontal disease
Periodontal disease
Periodontitis is a set of inflammatory diseases affecting the periodontium, i.e., the tissues that surround and support the teeth. Periodontitis involves progressive loss of the alveolar bone around the teeth, and if left untreated, can lead to the loosening and subsequent loss of teeth...
.
The mouth harbors a diverse, abundant and complex microbial community. This highly diverse microflora inhabits the various surfaces of the normal mouth. Bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
accumulate on both the hard and soft oral tissues in biofilm
Biofilm
A biofilm is an aggregate of microorganisms in which cells adhere to each other on a surface. These adherent cells are frequently embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance...
s. Bacterial adhesion
Adhesion
Adhesion is any attraction process between dissimilar molecular species that can potentially bring them in close contact. By contrast, cohesion takes place between similar molecules....
is particularly important for oral bacteria.
Oral bacteria have evolved mechanisms to sense their environment and evade or modify the host. Bacteria occupy the ecological niche provided by both the tooth
Tooth
Teeth are small, calcified, whitish structures found in the jaws of many vertebrates that are used to break down food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or for defensive purposes. The roots of teeth are embedded in the Mandible bone or the Maxillary bone and are...
surface and gingival epithelium
Epithelium
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of structures throughout the body, and also form many glands. Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective...
. However, a highly efficient innate host defense system constantly monitors the bacterial colonization and prevents bacterial invasion of local tissues. A dynamic equilibrium exists between dental plaque
Dental plaque
Dental plaque is a biofilm, usually a pale yellow, that develops naturally on the teeth. Like any biofilm, dental plaque is formed by colonizing bacteria trying to attach themselves to a smooth surface...
bacteria and the innate host defense system.
Oral bacteria
Oral bacteria include streptococci, lactobacilli, staphylococci, corynebacteria, and various anaerobes in particular bacteroidesBacteroides
Bacteroides is a genus of Gram-negative, bacillus bacteria. Bacteroides species are non-endospore-forming, anaerobes, and may be either motile or non-motile, depending on the species. The DNA base composition is 40-48% GC. Unusual in bacterial organisms, Bacteroides membranes contain sphingolipids...
. The oral cavity of the new-born baby does not contain bacteria but rapidly becomes colonized with bacteria such as Streptococcus salivarius
Streptococcus salivarius
Streptococcus salivarius is a species of spherical, Gram-positive bacteria which colonize the mouth and upper respiratory tract of humans a few hours after birth, making further exposure to the bacteria harmless...
. With the appearance of the teeth during the first year colonization by Streptococcus mutans
Streptococcus mutans
Streptococcus mutans is a facultatively aerobic, Gram-positive coccus-shaped bacterium commonly found in the human oral cavity and is a significant contributor to tooth decay.The microbe was first described by J Kilian Clarke in 1924.-Introduction:...
and Streptococcus sanguinis
Streptococcus sanguinis
Streptococcus sanguinis, formerly known as Streptococcus sanguis, is a Gram-positive facultative aerobic coccus species of bacteria and a member of the Viridans Streptococcus group. S...
occurs as these organisms colonise the dental surface and gingiva. Other strains of streptococci adhere strongly to the gums and cheeks but not to the teeth. The gingival crevice area (supporting structures of the teeth) provides a habitat for a variety of anaerobic species. Bacteroides and spirochetes colonize the mouth around puberty.
Treponema denticola
The levels of oral spirochetes are elevated in patients with periodontal diseases. Among this group, Treponema denticolaTreponema denticola
Treponema denticola is a motile and highly proteolytic bacterium. The Gram-negative oral spirochete is associated with the incidence and severity of human periodontal disease. Treponema denticola levels in the mouth are elevated in patients with periodontal diseases and the species is considered...
is the most studied and is considered as one of the main etiological bacteria of periodontitis. Treponema denticola is a motile and highly proteolytic bacterium.
Fusospirochetes
Spirochetes and fusi-form bacilli live as normal flora in the mouth, but in the case of bleeding in the oral cavity, the bacteria can cause infection and diseases to oral cavity:1/ Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG)
2/ Vincent angina with a membrane covering the throat area
Veillonella
Veillonella are gram-negative anaerobic cocci. It is thought that this species thrives in the acidic environment of caries and is thought to slow the development of dental caries. It converts the acidic products of other species to less acidic products.Porphyromonas gingivalis
Porphyromonas gingivalisPorphyromonas gingivalis
Porphyromonas gingivalis belongs to the phylum Bacteroidetes and is a non-motile, gram-negative, rod-shaped, anaerobic pathogenic bacterium. It forms black colonies on blood agar....
is a Gram-negative oral anaerobe strongly associated with chronic adult periodontitis. The bacterium produces a number of well-characterized virulence factors and can be manipulated genetically. The availability of the genome sequence is aiding our understanding of the biology of P. gingivalis and how it interacts with the environment, other bacteria and the human host.
Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans
Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitansAggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans
Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans is an oral commensal found also in severe infections in the oral cavity, mainly the periodontium. A. actinomycetemcomitans, previously Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, is a gram negative facultative non-motile rod. It is also associated with non-oral...
is considered an oral pathogen due to its virulence factors, its association with localized aggressive periodontitis in young adolescents, and studies indicating that it can cause bone loss.
Lactobacillus
Some Lactobacillus species have been associated with dental caries although these bacteria are normally symbiotic in humans and are found in the gut flora.Dental plaque
Dental plaque is the material that adheres to the teeth and consists of bacterial cells (mainly S. mutans and S. sanguis), salivary polymers and bacterial extracellular products. Plaque is a biofilm on the surfaces of the teeth. This accumulation of microorganisms subject the teeth and gingival tissues to high concentrations of bacterial metabolites which results in dental disease. If not taken care of, via brushing or flossing, the plaque can turn into tartar (its hardened form) and lead to gingivitis or periodontal disease.Cell-cell communication
Most of the bacterial species found in the mouth belong to microbial communities, called biofilmBiofilm
A biofilm is an aggregate of microorganisms in which cells adhere to each other on a surface. These adherent cells are frequently embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance...
s, a feature of which is inter-bacterial communication. Cell-cell contact, is mediated by specific protein adhesin
Adhesin
Adhesins are cell-surface components or appendages of bacteria that facilitate bacterial adhesion or adherence to other cells or to inanimate surfaces. Adhesins are a type of virulence factor....
s and often, as in the case of inter-species aggregation, by complementary polysaccharide receptors. Another method of communication involves cell-cell signalling molecules, which are of two classes: those used for intra-species and those used for inter-species signalling. An example of intra-species communication is quorum sensing
Quorum sensing
Quorum sensing is a system of stimulus and response correlated to population density. Many species of bacteria use quorum sensing to coordinate gene expression according to the density of their local population. In similar fashion, some social insects use quorum sensing to determine where to nest...
. Oral bacteria have been shown to produce small peptides, such as competence stimulating peptides, which can help promote single-species biofilm formation. A common form of inter-species signalling is mediated by 4, 5-dihydroxy-2, 3-pentanedione (DPD) or Autoinducer-2
Autoinducer-2
Autoinducer-2 , a furanosyl borate diester, is a member of a family of signaling molecules used in quorum sensing. AI-2 is unique in that it is one of only a few known biomolecules incorporating boron. First identified in the marine bacterium Vibrio harveyi, AI-2 is produced and recognized by many...
(Al-2).
Vaccination against oral infections
Dental caries and periodontitis have an infectious etiology and immunization has been proposed as a means of controlling them. However, the approaches vary according to the nature of the bacteria involved and the mechanisms of pathogenesis for these two very different diseases. In the case of dental caries, proteins involved in colonization of teeth by Streptococcus mutansStreptococcus mutans
Streptococcus mutans is a facultatively aerobic, Gram-positive coccus-shaped bacterium commonly found in the human oral cavity and is a significant contributor to tooth decay.The microbe was first described by J Kilian Clarke in 1924.-Introduction:...
can produce antibodies that inhibit the cariogenic process. Periodontal vaccines are less well developed, but some antigenic targets have been identified.
See also
- Human flora
- Biofilms
- Environmental microbiologyEnvironmental microbiologyEnvironmental microbiology is the study of the composition and physiology of microbial communities in the environment. The environment in this case means the soil, water, air and sediments covering the planet and can also include the animals and plants that inhabit these areas...
- Human microbiome projectHuman microbiome projectThe Human Microbiome Project is a United States National Institutes of Health initiative with the goal of identifying and characterizing the microorganisms which are found in association with both healthy and diseased humans . Launched in 2008, it is a five-year project, best characterized as a...
- MicrobiologyMicrobiologyMicrobiology is the study of microorganisms, which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters or no cell at all . This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes...