Odysseus' scar (Auerbach)
Encyclopedia
"Odysseus' Scar" is the first chapter of Mimesis
: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, a collection of essays by German-Jewish philologist Erich Auerbach
charting out the development of representations of reality in literature. It examines the differences between the two types of writing about reality as embodied by Homer
's Odyssey
and the Old Testament
. In the essay, Auerbach introduces his anti-rhetorical position, a position developed further in the companion essay "Fortunata" (ch. 2) which compares the Roman tradition of Tacitus
and Petronius
with the New Testament
, as anathema to a true representation of everyday life. Auerbach proceeds with this comparative approach until the triumph of Flaubert, Balzac and "modern realism" (ch. 18).
and the Odyssey
are “in their opposition...basic types” of ancient epic
literature. While the former can be various and arbitrary, multilayered in its characterization of people and events, the latter is the epitome
of detailed, organized and logical storytelling informed by the rhetorical tradition.
Although he acknowledged that both works exercised an enormous influence over subsequent Western literature
, Auerbach
held that the true motivation
behind the representations of reality
in both the Bible
and the Odyssey
lay within and without aesthetic considerations. For Homer
, it lay in the rhetorical tradition of the poet
to "represent phenomena in a fully externalized form, visible and palpable in all their parts." For the Elohist
writer, on the other hand, it was belief in a religion
, and the desire - not rhetorical considerations like the Greek and Latin tradition of the "two styles" (high for noble histories and low for comedic portrayals of the lower classes) - to convey the truth of that reality. Furthermore, the two works were written for very different purposes; the Odyssey
, as a piece of entertainment
to "make us forget our own reality for a few hours," while the Bible
, as religious doctrine
, to "make us fit our own life into its world."
begins with a close reading of brief excerpts from Homer
in which, upon Odysseus
’ homecoming, his old nursemaid Euryclea
recognizes the hero by the scar on his foot. Auerbach
notes here the clarity and orderliness of Homer's verse, as well as the tidy comparative, causal, and temporal relationships articulated by Homer's precise syntactical constructions, all hallmarks of the rhetorical tradition. As an example, he points out how, with the careful insertion of a flashback "retarding element" (term coined by Goethe and Schiller) into the middle of the story, Homer
creates a relaxing excursion to defer suspense. By keeping the focus always on the present narrative, the "procession of phenomena" Homer
presents always remains illuminated in the foreground, even as the story itself jumps back and forth between times and locations.
In contrast, Auerbach
's reading of Abraham
’s sacrifice
in the Book of Genesis reveals a style of realism
that is "fraught with background" and full of mystery and omissions. Unlike Homer's style, in which everything is clarified, the Elohist
leaves unsaid any detail that does not pertain to the story's purpose. Conversely, what is said is always loaded with meaning, creating an effect of accumulating suspense. Auerbach
contrasts this with the rhetorical style of the Odyssey
, one in which "even when the most terrible things are occurring...details prevent the reader from concentrating exclusively on a present crisis."
In the latter half of the essay, Auerbach
switches to a point-by-point comparison of the two works:
The tyranny of truth: Truth
has no bearing on the relevance of Homer
's stories, because the stories are "realistic" enough to be self-sufficient in their own conception of reality. On the other hand, the Bible
has everything to do with its perceived relation to truth
. The "realism" represented by the Bible is the direct consequence of this adherence to the "tyranny" of truth.
Looking at it from another point of view, the Odyssey
is a story
very limited in the scope because of the limitations imposed by rhetoric on the ways to represent reality, whereas the Bible's "tyrannical" claim on all truth
from Creation to the Last Days
, results, ironically, in an authentic representation of human experience. For this reason, Auerbach
believes the traditional allegorical or "figurative" interpretations of the Bible
lose all sense of the book's "earthy" portrayals.
Ultimately, by the time Auerbach treats his chapter on Flaubert the work comes full circle. Like the Biblical writers whose faith in the so called "tyrannical" truth of God produces an authentic expression of reality, Flaubert's "faith in the truth of language" (ch. 18) likewise represents "an entire human experience."
Representation of hero
es: The Odyssey
's heroes seem to change very little both inwardly and outwardly, even under duress, because they represent rhetorical "types." Like "Achilles
' actions by his courage and his pride, and Odysseus
' by his versatility
and foresightedness," they can be always summed up with a few apt epithets. On the other hand, characters of the Bible
like Jacob
and Job
are irrevocably changed by the trials they undergo.
History versus legend
: The Odyssey
is told like a legend - it is a little too convenient, too streamlined a story, and its characters
are all "clearly outlined" men with "few and simple motives." In the Bible
, reality is represented more like history - filled with ambiguity
, confusion
, and contradictory motives.
’s essay
have been that the passages he chose for close reading were not sufficiently representative of the two texts. Some scholars maintain, instead, that the poetry
(rather than the prose
) of the Old Testament
would be more appropriate for comparison to Homer
's verse.
Unsurprisingly, much of the criticism of this essay
has come from classicists, many of them finding Auerbach
's reading of The Odyssey
overly simplistic. Another argument is that Auerbach
failed to take into account that the Odyssey
may have been the written record of an orally told work, and that therefore the reality it represents is not the story of Odysseus
, but rather the telling of the story of Odysseus
. Such an interpretation would perhaps partly account for the work’s thoroughly-articulated and background-less style.
Although Auerbach
explicitly states in his essay
that he chose the particular texts of the Odyssey
and the Old Testament
because of their subsequent influence
on Western literature
, some scholars have questioned whether he may also have had political motivations for writing a piece comparing a sacred Jewish text to the Odyssey
, perhaps by using it as an analogy
for the conflict between Judeo-Christian
tradition and the Aryan
Nazism
flourishing in Europe
at the time of Mimesis
’ writing.
Mimesis
Mimesis , from μιμεῖσθαι , "to imitate," from μῖμος , "imitator, actor") is a critical and philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings, which include imitation, representation, mimicry, imitatio, receptivity, nonsensuous similarity, the act of resembling, the act of expression, and the...
: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, a collection of essays by German-Jewish philologist Erich Auerbach
Erich Auerbach
Erich Auerbach was a philologist and comparative scholar and critic of literature. His best-known work is Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, a history of representation in Western literature from ancient to modern times.-Biography:Auerbach, who was Jewish, was born in...
charting out the development of representations of reality in literature. It examines the differences between the two types of writing about reality as embodied by Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
's Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
and the Old Testament
Old Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
. In the essay, Auerbach introduces his anti-rhetorical position, a position developed further in the companion essay "Fortunata" (ch. 2) which compares the Roman tradition of Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
and Petronius
Petronius
Gaius Petronius Arbiter was a Roman courtier during the reign of Nero. He is generally believed to be the author of the Satyricon, a satirical novel believed to have been written during the Neronian age.-Life:...
with the New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
, as anathema to a true representation of everyday life. Auerbach proceeds with this comparative approach until the triumph of Flaubert, Balzac and "modern realism" (ch. 18).
"Two Basic Types"
According to Auerbach, the Old TestamentOld Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
and the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
are “in their opposition...basic types” of ancient epic
Epic poetry
An epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation. Oral poetry may qualify as an epic, and Albert Lord and Milman Parry have argued that classical epics were fundamentally an oral poetic form...
literature. While the former can be various and arbitrary, multilayered in its characterization of people and events, the latter is the epitome
Epitome
An epitome is a summary or miniature form; an instance that represents a larger reality, also used as a synonym for embodiment....
of detailed, organized and logical storytelling informed by the rhetorical tradition.
Although he acknowledged that both works exercised an enormous influence over subsequent Western literature
Western literature
Western literature refers to the literature written in the languages of Europe, including the ones belonging to the Indo-European language family as well as several geographically or historically related languages such as Basque, Hungarian, and so forth...
, Auerbach
Erich Auerbach
Erich Auerbach was a philologist and comparative scholar and critic of literature. His best-known work is Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, a history of representation in Western literature from ancient to modern times.-Biography:Auerbach, who was Jewish, was born in...
held that the true motivation
Motivation
Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation...
behind the representations of reality
Reality
In philosophy, reality is the state of things as they actually exist, rather than as they may appear or might be imagined. In a wider definition, reality includes everything that is and has been, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible...
in both the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
and the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
lay within and without aesthetic considerations. For Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
, it lay in the rhetorical tradition of the poet
Poet
A poet is a person who writes poetry. A poet's work can be literal, meaning that his work is derived from a specific event, or metaphorical, meaning that his work can take on many meanings and forms. Poets have existed since antiquity, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary...
to "represent phenomena in a fully externalized form, visible and palpable in all their parts." For the Elohist
Elohist
The Elohist is one of four sources of the Torah described by the Documentary Hypothesis. Its name comes from the term it uses for God: Elohim; it is characterised by, among other things, an abstract view of God, using "Horeb" instead of "Sinai" for the mountain where Moses received the laws of...
writer, on the other hand, it was belief in a religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
, and the desire - not rhetorical considerations like the Greek and Latin tradition of the "two styles" (high for noble histories and low for comedic portrayals of the lower classes) - to convey the truth of that reality. Furthermore, the two works were written for very different purposes; the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
, as a piece of entertainment
Entertainment
Entertainment consists of any activity which provides a diversion or permits people to amuse themselves in their leisure time. Entertainment is generally passive, such as watching opera or a movie. Active forms of amusement, such as sports, are more often considered to be recreation...
to "make us forget our own reality for a few hours," while the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
, as religious doctrine
Doctrine
Doctrine is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system...
, to "make us fit our own life into its world."
Content
In the essay, AuerbachAuerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
begins with a close reading of brief excerpts from Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
in which, upon Odysseus
Odysseus
Odysseus or Ulysses was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in the Epic Cycle....
’ homecoming, his old nursemaid Euryclea
Euryclea
In Greek mythology, Eurycleia - Εὐρύκλεια, Eurýkleia, or Euryclea , is the daughter of Ops and granddaughter of Peisenor, as well as the wet-nurse of Odysseus. As a girl she was bought by Laertes, Odysseus' father...
recognizes the hero by the scar on his foot. Auerbach
Auerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
notes here the clarity and orderliness of Homer's verse, as well as the tidy comparative, causal, and temporal relationships articulated by Homer's precise syntactical constructions, all hallmarks of the rhetorical tradition. As an example, he points out how, with the careful insertion of a flashback "retarding element" (term coined by Goethe and Schiller) into the middle of the story, Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
creates a relaxing excursion to defer suspense. By keeping the focus always on the present narrative, the "procession of phenomena" Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
presents always remains illuminated in the foreground, even as the story itself jumps back and forth between times and locations.
In contrast, Auerbach
Auerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
's reading of Abraham
Abraham
Abraham , whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam...
’s sacrifice
Sacrifice
Sacrifice is the offering of food, objects or the lives of animals or people to God or the gods as an act of propitiation or worship.While sacrifice often implies ritual killing, the term offering can be used for bloodless sacrifices of cereal food or artifacts...
in the Book of Genesis reveals a style of realism
Realism (arts)
Realism in the visual arts and literature refers to the general attempt to depict subjects "in accordance with secular, empirical rules", as they are considered to exist in third person objective reality, without embellishment or interpretation...
that is "fraught with background" and full of mystery and omissions. Unlike Homer's style, in which everything is clarified, the Elohist
Elohist
The Elohist is one of four sources of the Torah described by the Documentary Hypothesis. Its name comes from the term it uses for God: Elohim; it is characterised by, among other things, an abstract view of God, using "Horeb" instead of "Sinai" for the mountain where Moses received the laws of...
leaves unsaid any detail that does not pertain to the story's purpose. Conversely, what is said is always loaded with meaning, creating an effect of accumulating suspense. Auerbach
Auerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
contrasts this with the rhetorical style of the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
, one in which "even when the most terrible things are occurring...details prevent the reader from concentrating exclusively on a present crisis."
In the latter half of the essay, Auerbach
Auerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
switches to a point-by-point comparison of the two works:
The tyranny of truth: Truth
Truth
Truth has a variety of meanings, such as the state of being in accord with fact or reality. It can also mean having fidelity to an original or to a standard or ideal. In a common usage, it also means constancy or sincerity in action or character...
has no bearing on the relevance of Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
's stories, because the stories are "realistic" enough to be self-sufficient in their own conception of reality. On the other hand, the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
has everything to do with its perceived relation to truth
Truth
Truth has a variety of meanings, such as the state of being in accord with fact or reality. It can also mean having fidelity to an original or to a standard or ideal. In a common usage, it also means constancy or sincerity in action or character...
. The "realism" represented by the Bible is the direct consequence of this adherence to the "tyranny" of truth.
Looking at it from another point of view, the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
is a story
Narrative
A narrative is a constructive format that describes a sequence of non-fictional or fictional events. The word derives from the Latin verb narrare, "to recount", and is related to the adjective gnarus, "knowing" or "skilled"...
very limited in the scope because of the limitations imposed by rhetoric on the ways to represent reality, whereas the Bible's "tyrannical" claim on all truth
Truth
Truth has a variety of meanings, such as the state of being in accord with fact or reality. It can also mean having fidelity to an original or to a standard or ideal. In a common usage, it also means constancy or sincerity in action or character...
from Creation to the Last Days
Last Days
Last Days may refer to:* End time, the time period described by the eschatology of various religions-Books:*The Last Days , a 2003 novel by Joel C...
, results, ironically, in an authentic representation of human experience. For this reason, Auerbach
Auerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
believes the traditional allegorical or "figurative" interpretations of the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
lose all sense of the book's "earthy" portrayals.
Ultimately, by the time Auerbach treats his chapter on Flaubert the work comes full circle. Like the Biblical writers whose faith in the so called "tyrannical" truth of God produces an authentic expression of reality, Flaubert's "faith in the truth of language" (ch. 18) likewise represents "an entire human experience."
Representation of hero
Hero
A hero , in Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demigod, their cult being one of the most distinctive features of ancient Greek religion...
es: The Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
's heroes seem to change very little both inwardly and outwardly, even under duress, because they represent rhetorical "types." Like "Achilles
Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles was a Greek hero of the Trojan War, the central character and the greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad.Plato named Achilles the handsomest of the heroes assembled against Troy....
' actions by his courage and his pride, and Odysseus
Odysseus
Odysseus or Ulysses was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in the Epic Cycle....
' by his versatility
Versatile
Versatile is a Canadian brand of agricultural equipment that has produced augers, swathers and combine harvester.In the 1970s, it was an independent operation, founded by Peter Pakosh and Roy Robinson, that had 70% of the 4WD tractor market and then was later owned by Ford and Fiat's New Holland,...
and foresightedness," they can be always summed up with a few apt epithets. On the other hand, characters of the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
like Jacob
Jacob
Jacob "heel" or "leg-puller"), also later known as Israel , as described in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an was the third patriarch of the Hebrew people with whom God made a covenant, and ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his descendants.In the...
and Job
Job (Biblical figure)
Job is the central character of the Book of Job in the Hebrew Bible. Job is listed as a prophet of God in the Qur'an.- Book of Job :The Book of Job begins with an introduction to Job's character — he is described as a blessed man who lives righteously...
are irrevocably changed by the trials they undergo.
History versus legend
Legend
A legend is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude...
: The Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
is told like a legend - it is a little too convenient, too streamlined a story, and its characters
Character (arts)
A character is the representation of a person in a narrative work of art . Derived from the ancient Greek word kharaktêr , the earliest use in English, in this sense, dates from the Restoration, although it became widely used after its appearance in Tom Jones in 1749. From this, the sense of...
are all "clearly outlined" men with "few and simple motives." In the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
, reality is represented more like history - filled with ambiguity
Ambiguity
Ambiguity of words or phrases is the ability to express more than one interpretation. It is distinct from vagueness, which is a statement about the lack of precision contained or available in the information.Context may play a role in resolving ambiguity...
, confusion
ConFusion
ConFusion is an annual science fiction convention organized by the Stilyagi Air Corps and its parent organization, the Ann Arbor Science Fiction Association. Commonly, it is held the third weekend of January. It is the oldest science fiction convention in Michigan, a regional, general SF con...
, and contradictory motives.
Criticism
Several common critical objections to AuerbachAuerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
’s essay
Essay
An essay is a piece of writing which is often written from an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition...
have been that the passages he chose for close reading were not sufficiently representative of the two texts. Some scholars maintain, instead, that the poetry
Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...
(rather than the prose
Prose
Prose is the most typical form of written language, applying ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure...
) of the Old Testament
Old Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
would be more appropriate for comparison to Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
's verse.
Unsurprisingly, much of the criticism of this essay
Essay
An essay is a piece of writing which is often written from an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition...
has come from classicists, many of them finding Auerbach
Auerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
's reading of The Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
overly simplistic. Another argument is that Auerbach
Auerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
failed to take into account that the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
may have been the written record of an orally told work, and that therefore the reality it represents is not the story of Odysseus
Odysseus
Odysseus or Ulysses was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in the Epic Cycle....
, but rather the telling of the story of Odysseus
Odysseus
Odysseus or Ulysses was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in the Epic Cycle....
. Such an interpretation would perhaps partly account for the work’s thoroughly-articulated and background-less style.
Although Auerbach
Auerbach
Auerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
explicitly states in his essay
Essay
An essay is a piece of writing which is often written from an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition...
that he chose the particular texts of the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
and the Old Testament
Old Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
because of their subsequent influence
Social influence
Social influence occurs when an individual's thoughts, feelings or actions are affected by other people. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing...
on Western literature
Western literature
Western literature refers to the literature written in the languages of Europe, including the ones belonging to the Indo-European language family as well as several geographically or historically related languages such as Basque, Hungarian, and so forth...
, some scholars have questioned whether he may also have had political motivations for writing a piece comparing a sacred Jewish text to the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
, perhaps by using it as an analogy
Analogy
Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another particular subject , and a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process...
for the conflict between Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christian
Judeo-Christian is a term used in the United States since the 1940s to refer to standards of ethics said to be held in common by Judaism and Christianity, for example the Ten Commandments...
tradition and the Aryan
Aryan
Aryan is an English language loanword derived from Sanskrit ārya and denoting variously*In scholarly usage:**Indo-Iranian languages *in dated usage:**the Indo-European languages more generally and their speakers...
Nazism
Nazism
Nazism, the common short form name of National Socialism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany...
flourishing in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
at the time of Mimesis
Mimesis
Mimesis , from μιμεῖσθαι , "to imitate," from μῖμος , "imitator, actor") is a critical and philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings, which include imitation, representation, mimicry, imitatio, receptivity, nonsensuous similarity, the act of resembling, the act of expression, and the...
’ writing.
Further reading
- Ankersmit, Frank R. "Why Realism? AuerbachAuerbachAuerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
and the Representation of Reality." Poetics Today, Vol. 20, No. 1. (Spring, 1999), pp. 53-75. - Bakker, Egbert J. "MimesisMimesisMimesis , from μιμεῖσθαι , "to imitate," from μῖμος , "imitator, actor") is a critical and philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings, which include imitation, representation, mimicry, imitatio, receptivity, nonsensuous similarity, the act of resembling, the act of expression, and the...
as Performance: Rereading Auerbach's First Chapter" Poetics Today Vol. 20, No. 1 (Spring, 1999), pp. 11-26 - Bloom, Harold. HomerHomerIn the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
. New York: Chelsea House Publications - Breslin, Charles. "Philosophy or Philology: AuerbachAuerbachAuerbach, a German language generic toponym coming from Aue + Bach, meaning "floodmeadow brook", can refer to:-In Germany:*Auerbach, Erzgebirgskreis, in the Erzgebirgskreis district, Saxony...
and Aesthetic Historicism" Journal of the History of Ideas > Vol. 22, No. 3 (Jul., 1961), pp. 369-381 - Damrosch, David "Auerbach in Exile" Comparative Literature Vol. 47, No. 2 (Spring, 1995), pp. 97-117
- Fleischmann, Wolfgang Bernard. "Erich Auerbach's Critical Theory and Practice: An Assessment" MLN, Vol. 81, No. 5, General Issue. (Dec., 1966), pp. 535-541.
- Green, Geoffrey. Literary Criticism and the Structures of History: Erich AuerbachErich AuerbachErich Auerbach was a philologist and comparative scholar and critic of literature. His best-known work is Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, a history of representation in Western literature from ancient to modern times.-Biography:Auerbach, who was Jewish, was born in...
and Leo SpitzerLeo SpitzerLeo Spitzer was an Austrian Romanist and Hispanist, and an influential and prolific literary critic. He was known for his emphasis on stylistics....
. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. - Landauer, Carl. "Mimesis" and Erich Auerbach's Self-Mythologizing" German Studies Review > Vol. 11, No. 1 (Feb., 1988), pp. 83-96
- Lerer, Seth. Literary history and the challenge of philology : the legacy of Erich Auerbach. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
- Porter, James I. "Erich Auerbach and the Judaizing of Philology." Critical Inquiry Vol. 35, No. 1 (Autumn 2008), pp. 115-47.
- Whallom, William. "Old Testament Poetry and Homeric Epic." Comparative Literature Vol. 18, No. 2 (Spring, 1966), pp. 113-131
External links
- "Odysseus' Scar", Willard R. Trask's translation from the 1953 first edition of Mimesis