Nuclear renaissance
Encyclopedia
Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear power
industry revival, driven by rising fossil fuel prices
and new concerns about meeting greenhouse gas
emission limits. At the same time, various barriers to a nuclear renaissance have been identified. These include: unfavourable economics compared to other sources of energy, slowness in addressing climate change
, industrial bottlenecks and personnel shortages in nuclear sector, and the unresolved nuclear waste
issue. There are also concerns about more nuclear accidents, security, and nuclear weapons proliferation
.
New reactors under construction in Finland and France, which were meant to lead a nuclear renaissance, have been delayed and are running over-budget. China
has 27 new reactors under construction, and there are also a considerable number of new reactors being built in South Korea, India, and Russia. At least 100 older and smaller reactors will "most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years".
In March 2011 the nuclear emergencies
at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant
and other nuclear facilities raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance. Platts
has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy and the Philippines are reviewing their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. Countries such as Australia
, Austria
, Denmark
, Greece
, Ireland, Latvia
, Lichtenstein
, Luxembourg
, Portugal
, Israel, Malaysia
, New Zealand
, and Norway
remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the International Energy Agency
halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035.
A study by UBS, reported on April 12 2011, predicts that around 30 nuclear plants may be closed world-wide, with those located in seismic zones or close to national boundaries being the most likely to shut. The analysts believe that 'even pro-nuclear countries such as France
will be forced to close at least two reactors to demonstrate political action and restore the public acceptability of nuclear power', noting that the events at Fukushima 'cast doubt on the idea that even an advanced economy can master nuclear safety
'. In September 2011, German engineering giant Siemens
announced it will withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry, as a response to the Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan.
(IAEA) in recent years are as follows:
Annual generation of nuclear power has been on a slight downward trend since 2007, decreasing 1.8% in 2009 to 2558 TWh with nuclear power meeting 13-14% of the world's electricity demand. A major factor in the decrease has been the prolonged repair of seven large reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant
in Japan following the Niigata-Chuetsu-Oki earthquake.
According to an article in The Times
, the world is expected to build 180 nuclear power plants over the next decade, up from only 39 since 1999. Sixty-three reactors with a total capacity of 65 GW are by December 2010 under construction, but several carry over from earlier eras; some are partially completed reactors on which work has resumed (e.g., in Argentina); some are small and experimental (e.g., Russian floating reactors
); and some have been on the IAEA’s “under construction” list for years (e.g., in India and Russia). Reactor projects in Eastern Europe are essentially replacing old Soviet reactors shut down due to safety concerns. Most of the current activity ― 30 reactors ― is taking place in four countries: China, India, Russia and South Korea. Iran is the only country which is currently building its first power reactor, but construction began decades ago.
In the 2009 World Energy Outlook, the International Energy Agency
stated that:
In June 2009, Mark Cooper from the Vermont Law School
said: "The highly touted renaissance of nuclear power is based on fiction, not fact... There are numerous options available to meet the need for electricity in a carbon-constrained environment that are superior to building nuclear reactors".
In September 2009, Luc Oursel, chief executive of Areva Nuclear Plants (the core nuclear reactor manufacturing division of Areva
) stated: "We are convinced about the nuclear renaissance". Areva has been hiring up to 1,000 people a month, "to prepare for a surge in orders from around the world". However, in June 2010, Standard & Poor's downgraded Areva’s debt rating to BBB+
due to weakened profitability.
In 2010, Trevor Findlay
from the Centre for International Governance Innovation
stated that "despite some powerful drivers and clear advantages, a revival of nuclear energy faces too many barriers compared to other means of generating electricity for it to capture a growing market share to 2030".
In January 2010, the International Solar Energy Society
stated that "... it appears that the pace of nuclear plant retirements will exceed the development of the few new plants now being contemplated, so that nuclear power may soon start on a downward trend. It will remain to be seen if it has any place in an affordable future world energy policy".
In March 2010, Steve Kidd from the World Nuclear Association
said: "Proof of whether the mooted nuclear renaissance is merely 'industry hype' as some commentators suggest or reality will come over the next decade".
In August 2010, physicist Michael Dittmar stated that: "Nuclear fission's contribution to total electric energy has decreased from about 18 per cent a decade ago to about 14 per cent in 2008. On a worldwide scale, nuclear energy is thus only a small component of the global energy mix and its share, contrary to widespread belief, is not on the rise".
In March 2011, Alexander Glaser said: "It will take time to grasp the full impact of the unimaginable human tragedy unfolding after the earthquake and tsunami in Japan, but it is already clear that the proposition of a global nuclear renaissance ended on that day".
In 2011, Benjamin K. Sovacool
said: "The nuclear waste issue, although often ignored in industry press releases and sponsored reports, is the proverbial elephant in the room stopping a nuclear renaissance".
In September 2011, German engineering conglomerate Siemens
announced it will withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry, as a response to the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
and issues concerning other nuclear facilities in Japan on March 11, 2011, a nuclear emergency was declared. This was the first time a nuclear emergency had been declared in Japan, and 140,000 residents within 20 km of the plant were evacuated. Explosions and a fire have resulted in dangerous levels of radiation
, sparking a stock market collapse and panic-buying in supermarkets. Other "alarming incidents" continue to occur even in a well regulated industry like that of the U.S.
Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, there has been heightened concern that nuclear power plants may be targeted by terrorists or criminals, and that nuclear materials may be purloined for use in nuclear or radiological weapons.
to generate electricity
from nuclear fuel
for civilian purposes. The controversy peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies", in some countries.
In recent years there have been reports of a revival of the anti-nuclear
movement in Germany and protests in France during 2004 and 2007. In the United States, there have been protests about, and criticism of, several new nuclear reactor proposals and some objections to license renewals for existing nuclear plants.
presented the results of a series of public opinion surveys in the Global Public Opinion on Nuclear Issues report. Majorities of respondents in 14 of the 18 countries surveyed believe that the risk of terrorist acts involving radioactive materials
at nuclear facilities is high, because of insufficient protection. While majorities of citizens generally support the continued use of existing nuclear power reactors, most people do not favour the building of new nuclear plants, and 25% of respondents feel that all nuclear power plants should be closed down. Stressing the climate change
benefits of nuclear energy positively influences 10% of people to be more supportive of expanding the role of nuclear power in the world, but there is still a general reluctance to support the building of more nuclear power plants.
South Africa
(which has two nuclear power reactors), however, removed government funding for its planned new PBMRs in February 2010, pending a decision on the project in August.
approved a $8 billion loan guarantee for the construction of two nuclear reactors in the state of Georgia. If the project goes forward, these would be the first new plants authorized to be built in the United States since the 1970s.
In January 2010, President Obama moved to further promote nuclear power in the United States, proposing to triple federal loan guarantees for new power plant projects and appointing a high-level panel to study nuclear waste disposal options.
However, concerns still exist - primarily over potential cost overruns in the first plants (the reason for increasing the federal loan guarantees, so as to build more) and in the disposal of the spent nuclear fuel
(in the wake of the cancellation of the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository). Concerns over the operation of Three Mile Island-era
plants also continue to be a factor.
As of March 2010, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
expected proposals for 26 new reactors in the U.S. However, several license applications filed with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for proposed new reactors have been suspended or cancelled. In the same month, Exelon
withdrew its application for a construction and operating license for a twin-unit nuclear plant in Victoria County, Texas, citing lower electricity demand projections. The decision left the country’s largest nuclear operator without a direct role in what the nuclear industry hopes is an expansion of nuclear power in the USA. In August 2010, Exelon bought John Deere Renewables, and is moving into wind power
.
In May 2010 Entergy
Corp Chief Executive J. Wayne Leonard said that "building new nuclear plants remains too costly and will prevent many utilities from participating in the fledgling nuclear renaissance in the United States".
In September 2010, Matthew Wald from the New York Times suggested that "the nuclear renaissance is looking small and slow at the moment". Other than the Vogtle project
, ground has been broken on just one other reactor, in South Carolina. The prospects of a proposed project in Texas, South Texas 3 & 4, have been dimmed by disunity among the partners. Two other reactors in Texas, four in Florida and one in Missouri have all been "moved to the back burner, mostly because of uncertain economics".
In October 2010, Constellation Energy
"pulled the plug" on building a new reactor at its Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant
despite a promised $7.5 billion loan guarantee from the Department of Energy, dealing a "potential blow to efforts to create a U.S. nuclear renaissance as well as the promised effectiveness of the department’s loan program". Peter Behr of ClimateWire reported that "if the 'nuclear renaissance' is not dead, it appeared in a coma for most of the country" following the collapse of Constellation Energy's plan to build a third reactor at Calvert Cliffs.
The 2011 Japanese Fukushima I nuclear accidents have led some energy officials in the United States to "think twice about nuclear expansion".
The nuclear industry has hired many lobbyists over the years to press their case for a nuclear renaissance with power brokers on Capitol Hill, but after Fukushima there was a change of mood:
The nuclear disaster in Japan is likely to have major effects on US energy policy, according to billionaire investor Warren Buffett
. Buffet said that the "United States was poised to move ahead with nuclear plans here, but the events in Japan derailed that".
Michael Grunwald has said that the "American nuclear renaissance is a myth" and new nuclear plants are "preposterously expensive to build". Despite "extraordinary bipartisan support and generous cradle-to-grave subsidies for new nukes, private financiers wouldn’t touch them", even before the Fukushima I nuclear accidents.
Without a long-term solution to store nuclear waste, a nuclear renaissance in the U.S. remains unlikely. Nine states have "explicit moratoria on new nuclear power until a storage solution emerges".
As of October 2011, plans for about 30 new reactors in the United States have been "whittled down to just four, despite the promise of large subsidies and President Barack Obama’s support of nuclear power, which he reaffirmed after Fukushima". The only reactor currently under construction in America, at Watts Bar
, Tennessee
, was begun in 1973 and may be completed in 2012.
In 2008, the Energy Information Administration
projected almost 17 gigawatts of new nuclear power reactors by 2030, but in its 2011 projections, it "scaled back the 2030 projection to just five". A survey conducted in April 2011 found that 64 percent of Americans opposed the construction of new nuclear reactors.
As of early 2010 China
had 11 nuclear reactors operating and 20 under construction, with more planned. "China is rapidly becoming self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the fuel cycle." However, according to a government research unit, China must not build "too many nuclear power reactors too quickly", in order to avoid a shortfall of fuel, equipment and qualified plant workers.
Following the Fukushima disaster, many are questioning the mass roll-out of new plants in India, including the World Bank, the Indian Environment Minister, Jairam Ramesh, and the former head of the country's nuclear regulatory body, A. Gopalakrishnan. The massive Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project
is the focus of concern - "931 hectares of farmland will be needed to build the reactors, land that is now home to 10,000 people, their mango orchards, cashew trees and rice fields". Fishermen in the region say their livelihoods will be wiped out.
South Korea
is exploring nuclear projects with a number of nations.
The plan to build at least one new nuclear power plant in the U.K. by 2017 will not be fulfilled, as the waiting list for pressure vessels (which are at the centre of a nuclear power plant) is too long. The British regulator, Kevin Allars told the BBC that no British nuclear power station has ever been built on time and that he would be every bit as tough on the contractors as his Finnish equivalent even if it meant further delays to the programme.
Austria, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Poland and Ireland have no active nuclear plants and none under construction, though "some have plans of varying credibility".
Following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
, anti-nuclear opposition intensified in Germany. On March 15, 2011, Angela Merkel
said that seven nuclear power plants which went online before 1980 would be temporarily closed and the time would be used to study speedier renewable energy commercialization
.
The 2011 Japanese Fukushima nuclear accidents have led some European energy officials to "think twice about nuclear expansion".
As of 2011, the British government's programme to build new nuclear power stations in England has been "delayed by at least three months so that lessons can be learned from the accident at Fukushima in Japan".
won a contract for four nuclear power plants to be built in the United Arab Emirates
, for operation in 2017 to 2020.
On March 17, 2011, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu
stated that Israel
was now unlikely to pursue civil nuclear energy.
announced new plans to start building 10 new nuclear reactors in the next year.
Nuclear power
Nuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity...
industry revival, driven by rising fossil fuel prices
Price of petroleum
The price of petroleum as quoted in news generally refers to the spot price per barrel of either WTI/light crude as traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange for delivery at Cushing, Oklahoma, or of Brent as traded on the Intercontinental Exchange for delivery at Sullom Voe.The price...
and new concerns about meeting greenhouse gas
Greenhouse gas
A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone...
emission limits. At the same time, various barriers to a nuclear renaissance have been identified. These include: unfavourable economics compared to other sources of energy, slowness in addressing climate change
Climate change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average...
, industrial bottlenecks and personnel shortages in nuclear sector, and the unresolved nuclear waste
High-level radioactive waste management
High-level radioactive waste management concerns management and disposal of highly radioactive materials created during production of nuclear power and nuclear warheads. The technical issues in accomplishing this are daunting, due to the extremely long periods radioactive wastes remain deadly to...
issue. There are also concerns about more nuclear accidents, security, and nuclear weapons proliferation
Nuclear proliferation
Nuclear proliferation is a term now used to describe the spread of nuclear weapons, fissile material, and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information, to nations which are not recognized as "Nuclear Weapon States" by the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also known as the...
.
New reactors under construction in Finland and France, which were meant to lead a nuclear renaissance, have been delayed and are running over-budget. China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
has 27 new reactors under construction, and there are also a considerable number of new reactors being built in South Korea, India, and Russia. At least 100 older and smaller reactors will "most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years".
In March 2011 the nuclear emergencies
Timeline of the Fukushima nuclear accidents
For the timelines of the nuclear accidents at Fukushima Daiichi and Fukushima Daini after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, see:* Timeline of the Fukushima I nuclear accidents* Timeline of the Fukushima II nuclear accidents...
at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant
Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant
The , also known as Fukushima Dai-ichi , is a disabled nuclear power plant located on a site in the towns of Okuma and Futaba in the Futaba District of Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. First commissioned in 1971, the plant consists of six boiling water reactors...
and other nuclear facilities raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance. Platts
Platts
Platts is a provider of energy and metals information and a source of benchmark price assessments in the physical energy markets. Platts was founded in Cleveland, Ohio in 1909 by Warren C...
has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy and the Philippines are reviewing their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. Countries such as Australia
Nuclear power in Australia
Nuclear power in Australia is a heavily debated concept. Australia currently has no nuclear facilities generatingelectricity, however, Australia has 23% of the world's uranium deposits and is the world's second largest producer of uranium after Kazakhstan...
, Austria
Nuclear energy in Austria
In the 1960s the Austrian government started a nuclear energy program and parliament unanimously ordered a nuclear power plant built. In 1972, the German company KWU began construction of the Zwentendorf Nuclear Power Plant boiling water 700 MWe reactor...
, Denmark
Nuclear energy in Denmark
Denmark does not produce nuclear energy, which is in accordance with a 1985 law passed by the Danish parliament that prohibits the production of nuclear energy in Denmark. Instead, the country has focused on renewable energy sources such as wind energy. In 2007, about 11.4 TWh of electricity...
, Greece
Nuclear energy in Greece
Although Greece has established the Greek Atomic Energy Commission , a decision has been made not to implement a nuclear power program to generate electricity....
, Ireland, Latvia
Latvia
Latvia , officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , to the southeast by Belarus and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden...
, Lichtenstein
Lichtenstein
Lichtenstein is surname of:*Aharon Lichtenstein, noted Orthodox rabbi*Alfred Lichtenstein , an American philatelist*Alfred Lichtenstein , a German writer*Bill Lichtenstein, journalist and producer...
, Luxembourg
Nuclear energy in Luxembourg
In 1978, Luxembourg proposed the construction of a 1,200 MW nuclear reactor but dropped the plans after threats of major protests....
, Portugal
Nuclear energy in Portugal
Nuclear energy in Portugal is very limited and strictly non-commercial. Portugal has one research reactor located in the National Nuclear Research Centre. Nuclear energy activities are not planned in the near future...
, Israel, Malaysia
Nuclear energy in Malaysia
Although Malaysia has established Nuclear Agency and been actively involved in the periodic review of the nuclear option, currently there is no nuclear power generation plant neither is there a plan to embark on a nuclear power program in the foreseeable future....
, New Zealand
New Zealand's nuclear-free zone
In 1984, Prime Minister David Lange barred nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships from using New Zealand ports or entering New Zealand waters. Under the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, territorial sea, land and airspace of New Zealand became nuclear-free zones...
, and Norway
Nuclear energy in Norway
No nuclear power plant has ever been established in Norway; however, the country has a legal framework for licensing the construction and operation of nuclear installations. Also, four research reactors have been built in Norway, the first was JEEP I which was operative from 1951 to 1966. Two...
remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the International Energy Agency
International Energy Agency
The International Energy Agency is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organization established in the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1974 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis...
halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035.
A study by UBS, reported on April 12 2011, predicts that around 30 nuclear plants may be closed world-wide, with those located in seismic zones or close to national boundaries being the most likely to shut. The analysts believe that 'even pro-nuclear countries such as France
Nuclear power in France
Nuclear power is the primary source of electric power in France. In 2004, 425.8 TWh out of the country's total production of 540.6 TWh of electricity was from nuclear power , the highest percentage in the world....
will be forced to close at least two reactors to demonstrate political action and restore the public acceptability of nuclear power', noting that the events at Fukushima 'cast doubt on the idea that even an advanced economy can master nuclear safety
Nuclear safety
Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent nuclear and radiation accidents or to limit their consequences. This covers nuclear power plants as well as all other nuclear facilities, the transportation of nuclear materials, and the use and storage of nuclear materials for medical, power,...
'. In September 2011, German engineering giant Siemens
Siemens
Siemens may refer toSiemens, a German family name carried by generations of telecommunications industrialists, including:* Werner von Siemens , inventor, founder of Siemens AG...
announced it will withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry, as a response to the Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan.
Overview
As of May 15, 2011, "a total of 438 nuclear reactors were operating in 30 countries, six fewer than the historical maximum of 444 in 2002. Since 2002, utilities have started up 26 units and disconnected 32 including six units at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan. The current world reactor fleet has a total nominal capacity of about 372 gigawatts (or thousand megawatts). Despite six fewer units operating in 2011 than in 2002, the capacity is still about 9 gigawatts higher". The numbers of new operative reactors, final shutdowns and new initiated constructions according to International Atomic Energy AgencyInternational Atomic Energy Agency
The International Atomic Energy Agency is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organization on 29 July 1957...
(IAEA) in recent years are as follows:
| Year | New connections | Shutdowns | Net change | Construction initiation | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| # of reactors | GW | # of reactors | GW | # of reactors | GW | # of reactors | GW | ||
| 2004 | 5 | 4.8 | 5 | 1.4 | 0 | +3.4 | 2 | 1.3 | |
| 2005 | 4 | 3.8 | 2 | 0.9 | +2 | +2.9 | 3 | 2.9 | |
| 2006 | 2 | 1.5 | 8 | 2.2 | −6 | −0.7 | 4 | 3.3 | |
| 2007 | 3 | 1.9 | 0 | –– | +3 | +1.9 | 8 | 6.5 | |
| 2008 | 0 | –– | 1 | 0.4 | −1 | −0.4 | 10 | 10.5 | |
| 2009 | 2 | 1.0 | 3 | 2.5 | −1 | −1.4 | 12 | 13.1 | |
| 2010 | 5 | 3.8 | 1 | 0.1 | +4 | +3.6 | 16 | 15.8 | |
| 2011 | 3 | 1.5 | 5 | 2.9 | −2 | −1.4 | 2 | 0.9 | |
Annual generation of nuclear power has been on a slight downward trend since 2007, decreasing 1.8% in 2009 to 2558 TWh with nuclear power meeting 13-14% of the world's electricity demand. A major factor in the decrease has been the prolonged repair of seven large reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant
Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant
The is a large, modern nuclear power plant on a 4.2-square-kilometer site including land in the towns of Kashiwazaki and Kariwa in Niigata Prefecture, Japan on the coast of the Sea of Japan, from where it gets cooling water...
in Japan following the Niigata-Chuetsu-Oki earthquake.
According to an article in The Times
The Times
The Times is a British daily national newspaper, first published in London in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register . The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers Limited, a subsidiary since 1981 of News International...
, the world is expected to build 180 nuclear power plants over the next decade, up from only 39 since 1999. Sixty-three reactors with a total capacity of 65 GW are by December 2010 under construction, but several carry over from earlier eras; some are partially completed reactors on which work has resumed (e.g., in Argentina); some are small and experimental (e.g., Russian floating reactors
Russian floating nuclear power station
Floating nuclear power stations are vessels projected by Rosatom that present self-contained, low-capacity, floating nuclear power plants...
); and some have been on the IAEA’s “under construction” list for years (e.g., in India and Russia). Reactor projects in Eastern Europe are essentially replacing old Soviet reactors shut down due to safety concerns. Most of the current activity ― 30 reactors ― is taking place in four countries: China, India, Russia and South Korea. Iran is the only country which is currently building its first power reactor, but construction began decades ago.
In the 2009 World Energy Outlook, the International Energy Agency
International Energy Agency
The International Energy Agency is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organization established in the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1974 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis...
stated that:
A nuclear renaissance is possible but cannot occur overnight. Nuclear projects face significant hurdles, including extended construction periods and related risks, long licensing processes and manpower shortages, plus long‐standing issues related to waste disposal, proliferation and local opposition. The financing of new nuclear power plants, especially in liberalized markets, has always been difficult and
the financial crisis seems almost certain to have made it even more so. The huge capital requirements, combined with risks of cost overruns and regulatory uncertainties, make investors and lenders very cautious, even when demand growth is robust.
In June 2009, Mark Cooper from the Vermont Law School
Vermont Law School
Vermont Law School is a private, American Bar Association accredited law school located in South Royalton, Vermont . The Law School has one of the United States' leading programs in environmental law, and the Law School is currently ranked #1 in Environmental Law by U.S...
said: "The highly touted renaissance of nuclear power is based on fiction, not fact... There are numerous options available to meet the need for electricity in a carbon-constrained environment that are superior to building nuclear reactors".
In September 2009, Luc Oursel, chief executive of Areva Nuclear Plants (the core nuclear reactor manufacturing division of Areva
Areva
AREVA is a French public multinational industrial conglomerate headquartered in the Tour Areva in Courbevoie, Paris. AREVA is mainly known for nuclear power; it also has interests in other energy projects. It was created on 3 September 2001, by the merger of Framatome , Cogema and...
) stated: "We are convinced about the nuclear renaissance". Areva has been hiring up to 1,000 people a month, "to prepare for a surge in orders from around the world". However, in June 2010, Standard & Poor's downgraded Areva’s debt rating to BBB+
Bond credit rating
In investment, the bond credit rating assesses the credit worthiness of a corporation's or government debt issues. It is analogous to credit ratings for individuals.-Table:...
due to weakened profitability.
In 2010, Trevor Findlay
Trevor Findlay
Trevor Findlay is director of the Nuclear Energy Futures Project at the Centre for International Governance Innovation in Waterloo, Ontario. He heads the CIGI project on the future of the IAEA...
from the Centre for International Governance Innovation
Centre for International Governance Innovation
The Centre for International Governance Innovation is an independent, non-partisan think tank on global governance. Led by experienced practitioners and academics, CIGI supports research, forms networks, advances policy debate and generates ideas for multilateral governance improvements...
stated that "despite some powerful drivers and clear advantages, a revival of nuclear energy faces too many barriers compared to other means of generating electricity for it to capture a growing market share to 2030".
In January 2010, the International Solar Energy Society
International Solar Energy Society
The International Solar Energy Society is a global organization for promoting the development and utilisation of renewable energy. ISES is a UN-accredited NGO and David S. Renné is the current president....
stated that "... it appears that the pace of nuclear plant retirements will exceed the development of the few new plants now being contemplated, so that nuclear power may soon start on a downward trend. It will remain to be seen if it has any place in an affordable future world energy policy".
In March 2010, Steve Kidd from the World Nuclear Association
World Nuclear Association
The World Nuclear Association , formerly the Uranium Institute, is an international organization that promotes nuclear power and supports the many companies that comprise the global nuclear industry...
said: "Proof of whether the mooted nuclear renaissance is merely 'industry hype' as some commentators suggest or reality will come over the next decade".
In August 2010, physicist Michael Dittmar stated that: "Nuclear fission's contribution to total electric energy has decreased from about 18 per cent a decade ago to about 14 per cent in 2008. On a worldwide scale, nuclear energy is thus only a small component of the global energy mix and its share, contrary to widespread belief, is not on the rise".
In March 2011, Alexander Glaser said: "It will take time to grasp the full impact of the unimaginable human tragedy unfolding after the earthquake and tsunami in Japan, but it is already clear that the proposition of a global nuclear renaissance ended on that day".
In 2011, Benjamin K. Sovacool
Benjamin K. Sovacool
Benjamin K. Sovacool is a Visiting Associate Professor at Vermont Law School and founding Director of the Energy Justice Program at their Institute for Energy and Environment. He was formerly an Assistant Professor and Research Fellow at the National University of Singapore.Sovacool's research...
said: "The nuclear waste issue, although often ignored in industry press releases and sponsored reports, is the proverbial elephant in the room stopping a nuclear renaissance".
In September 2011, German engineering conglomerate Siemens
Siemens
Siemens may refer toSiemens, a German family name carried by generations of telecommunications industrialists, including:* Werner von Siemens , inventor, founder of Siemens AG...
announced it will withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry, as a response to the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
Economics
Nuclear power plants are large construction projects with very high up-front costs. The cost of capital is also steep due to the risk of construction delays and obstructing legal action. The large capital cost of nuclear power has been a key barrier to the construction of new reactors around the world, and the economics have recently worsened, as a result of the global financial crisis. As the OECD’s Nuclear Energy Agency points out, "investors tend to favor less capital intensive and more flexible technologies". This has led to a large increase in the use of natural gas for base-load power production, often using more sophisticated combined cycle plants.Accidents and safety
Following an earthquake, tsunami, and failure of cooling systems at Fukushima I Nuclear Power PlantFukushima I Nuclear Power Plant
The , also known as Fukushima Dai-ichi , is a disabled nuclear power plant located on a site in the towns of Okuma and Futaba in the Futaba District of Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. First commissioned in 1971, the plant consists of six boiling water reactors...
and issues concerning other nuclear facilities in Japan on March 11, 2011, a nuclear emergency was declared. This was the first time a nuclear emergency had been declared in Japan, and 140,000 residents within 20 km of the plant were evacuated. Explosions and a fire have resulted in dangerous levels of radiation
Radiation
In physics, radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There are two distinct types of radiation; ionizing and non-ionizing...
, sparking a stock market collapse and panic-buying in supermarkets. Other "alarming incidents" continue to occur even in a well regulated industry like that of the U.S.
Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, there has been heightened concern that nuclear power plants may be targeted by terrorists or criminals, and that nuclear materials may be purloined for use in nuclear or radiological weapons.
Controversy
A nuclear power controversy has surrounded the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactorsNuclear reactor
A nuclear reactor is a device to initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction. Most commonly they are used for generating electricity and for the propulsion of ships. Usually heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid , which runs through turbines that power either ship's...
to generate electricity
Electricity
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire...
from nuclear fuel
Nuclear fuel
Nuclear fuel is a material that can be 'consumed' by fission or fusion to derive nuclear energy. Nuclear fuels are the most dense sources of energy available...
for civilian purposes. The controversy peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies", in some countries.
In recent years there have been reports of a revival of the anti-nuclear
Anti-nuclear
The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement that opposes the use of nuclear technologies. Many direct action groups, environmental groups, and professional organisations have identified themselves with the movement at the local, national, and international level...
movement in Germany and protests in France during 2004 and 2007. In the United States, there have been protests about, and criticism of, several new nuclear reactor proposals and some objections to license renewals for existing nuclear plants.
Public opinion
In 2005, the International Atomic Energy AgencyInternational Atomic Energy Agency
The International Atomic Energy Agency is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organization on 29 July 1957...
presented the results of a series of public opinion surveys in the Global Public Opinion on Nuclear Issues report. Majorities of respondents in 14 of the 18 countries surveyed believe that the risk of terrorist acts involving radioactive materials
Nuclear terrorism
Nuclear terrorism denotes the use, or threat of the use, of nuclear weapons or radiological weapons in acts of terrorism, includingattacks against facilities where radioactive materials are present...
at nuclear facilities is high, because of insufficient protection. While majorities of citizens generally support the continued use of existing nuclear power reactors, most people do not favour the building of new nuclear plants, and 25% of respondents feel that all nuclear power plants should be closed down. Stressing the climate change
Climate change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average...
benefits of nuclear energy positively influences 10% of people to be more supportive of expanding the role of nuclear power in the world, but there is still a general reluctance to support the building of more nuclear power plants.
Africa
As of March 2010, ten African nations had begun exploring plans to build nuclear reactors.South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
(which has two nuclear power reactors), however, removed government funding for its planned new PBMRs in February 2010, pending a decision on the project in August.
America
The 2005 Energy Policy Act authorized $18.5 billion in loan guarantees for new nuclear plants, and in February 2010 the Obama administrationPresidency of Barack Obama
The Presidency of Barack Obama began at noon EST on January 20, 2009 when he became the 44th President of the United States. Obama was a United States Senator from Illinois at the time of his victory over Arizona Senator John McCain in the 2008 presidential election...
approved a $8 billion loan guarantee for the construction of two nuclear reactors in the state of Georgia. If the project goes forward, these would be the first new plants authorized to be built in the United States since the 1970s.
In January 2010, President Obama moved to further promote nuclear power in the United States, proposing to triple federal loan guarantees for new power plant projects and appointing a high-level panel to study nuclear waste disposal options.
However, concerns still exist - primarily over potential cost overruns in the first plants (the reason for increasing the federal loan guarantees, so as to build more) and in the disposal of the spent nuclear fuel
Spent nuclear fuel
Spent nuclear fuel, occasionally called used nuclear fuel, is nuclear fuel that has been irradiated in a nuclear reactor...
(in the wake of the cancellation of the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository). Concerns over the operation of Three Mile Island-era
Generation II reactor
A generation II reactor is a design classification for a nuclear reactor, and refers to the class of commercial reactors built up to the end of the 1990s...
plants also continue to be a factor.
As of March 2010, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is an independent agency of the United States government that was established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 from the United States Atomic Energy Commission, and was first opened January 19, 1975...
expected proposals for 26 new reactors in the U.S. However, several license applications filed with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for proposed new reactors have been suspended or cancelled. In the same month, Exelon
Exelon
Exelon Corporation is an electricity generating and distributing company headquartered in the Chase Tower in the Chicago Loop area of Chicago. It was created in October, 2000 by the merger of PECO Energy Company and Unicom, of Philadelphia and Chicago respectively. Unicom owned Commonwealth Edison...
withdrew its application for a construction and operating license for a twin-unit nuclear plant in Victoria County, Texas, citing lower electricity demand projections. The decision left the country’s largest nuclear operator without a direct role in what the nuclear industry hopes is an expansion of nuclear power in the USA. In August 2010, Exelon bought John Deere Renewables, and is moving into wind power
Wind power in the United States
As of the third quarter of 2011, the cumulative installed capacity of wind power in the United States was 43,461 megawatts , making it second in the world, behind China. In 2010 wind power accounted for 2.3% of the electricity generated in the United States...
.
In May 2010 Entergy
Entergy
Entergy Corporation is an integrated energy company engaged primarily in electric power production and retail distribution operations. It is headquartered in the Central Business District of New Orleans, Louisiana.-History:...
Corp Chief Executive J. Wayne Leonard said that "building new nuclear plants remains too costly and will prevent many utilities from participating in the fledgling nuclear renaissance in the United States".
In September 2010, Matthew Wald from the New York Times suggested that "the nuclear renaissance is looking small and slow at the moment". Other than the Vogtle project
Vogtle Electric Generating Plant
The Alvin W. Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, also known as Plant Vogtle, is a 2-unit nuclear power plant located in Burke County, near Waynesboro, Georgia...
, ground has been broken on just one other reactor, in South Carolina. The prospects of a proposed project in Texas, South Texas 3 & 4, have been dimmed by disunity among the partners. Two other reactors in Texas, four in Florida and one in Missouri have all been "moved to the back burner, mostly because of uncertain economics".
In October 2010, Constellation Energy
Constellation Energy
Constellation Energy, headquartered in Baltimore, Maryland, is an energy producer, trader, and distributor. The company operates over 35 power plants in 11 states under its operating company Constellation Commodities Group and/or Constellation Generation Group...
"pulled the plug" on building a new reactor at its Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant
Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant
The Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant located on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay near Lusby, Calvert County, Maryland.-Overview:...
despite a promised $7.5 billion loan guarantee from the Department of Energy, dealing a "potential blow to efforts to create a U.S. nuclear renaissance as well as the promised effectiveness of the department’s loan program". Peter Behr of ClimateWire reported that "if the 'nuclear renaissance' is not dead, it appeared in a coma for most of the country" following the collapse of Constellation Energy's plan to build a third reactor at Calvert Cliffs.
The 2011 Japanese Fukushima I nuclear accidents have led some energy officials in the United States to "think twice about nuclear expansion".
The nuclear industry has hired many lobbyists over the years to press their case for a nuclear renaissance with power brokers on Capitol Hill, but after Fukushima there was a change of mood:
... as it became clear the Japanese - one of the most technologically advanced nations on earth - had lost control of the deteriorating situation at Fukushima, lobbyists all over Washington began to sense a change of mood almost immediately. The so-called 'Nuclear Renaissance' that had taken years to build up steam disappeared in a day.
The nuclear disaster in Japan is likely to have major effects on US energy policy, according to billionaire investor Warren Buffett
Warren Buffett
Warren Edward Buffett is an American business magnate, investor, and philanthropist. He is widely regarded as one of the most successful investors in the world. Often introduced as "legendary investor, Warren Buffett", he is the primary shareholder, chairman and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway. He is...
. Buffet said that the "United States was poised to move ahead with nuclear plans here, but the events in Japan derailed that".
Michael Grunwald has said that the "American nuclear renaissance is a myth" and new nuclear plants are "preposterously expensive to build". Despite "extraordinary bipartisan support and generous cradle-to-grave subsidies for new nukes, private financiers wouldn’t touch them", even before the Fukushima I nuclear accidents.
Without a long-term solution to store nuclear waste, a nuclear renaissance in the U.S. remains unlikely. Nine states have "explicit moratoria on new nuclear power until a storage solution emerges".
As of October 2011, plans for about 30 new reactors in the United States have been "whittled down to just four, despite the promise of large subsidies and President Barack Obama’s support of nuclear power, which he reaffirmed after Fukushima". The only reactor currently under construction in America, at Watts Bar
Watts Bar Nuclear Generating Station
The Watts Bar Nuclear Generating Station is a Tennessee Valley Authority nuclear reactor used for electric power generation and tritium production for nuclear weapons. It is located on a 1,770-acre site in Rhea County, Tennessee, near Spring City, between the cities of Chattanooga and Knoxville...
, Tennessee
Tennessee
Tennessee is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. It has a population of 6,346,105, making it the nation's 17th-largest state by population, and covers , making it the 36th-largest by total land area...
, was begun in 1973 and may be completed in 2012.
In 2008, the Energy Information Administration
Energy Information Administration
The U.S. Energy Information Administration is the statistical and analytical agency within the U.S. Department of Energy. EIA collects, analyzes, and disseminates independent and impartial energy information to promote sound policymaking, efficient markets, and public understanding of energy and...
projected almost 17 gigawatts of new nuclear power reactors by 2030, but in its 2011 projections, it "scaled back the 2030 projection to just five". A survey conducted in April 2011 found that 64 percent of Americans opposed the construction of new nuclear reactors.
Asia
As of 2008, the greatest growth in nuclear generation was expected to be in China, Japan, South Korea and India.As of early 2010 China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
had 11 nuclear reactors operating and 20 under construction, with more planned. "China is rapidly becoming self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the fuel cycle." However, according to a government research unit, China must not build "too many nuclear power reactors too quickly", in order to avoid a shortfall of fuel, equipment and qualified plant workers.
Following the Fukushima disaster, many are questioning the mass roll-out of new plants in India, including the World Bank, the Indian Environment Minister, Jairam Ramesh, and the former head of the country's nuclear regulatory body, A. Gopalakrishnan. The massive Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project
Jaitapur nuclear power project
Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project is a proposed 9900 MW power project of Nuclear Power Corporation of India at Madban village of Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra...
is the focus of concern - "931 hectares of farmland will be needed to build the reactors, land that is now home to 10,000 people, their mango orchards, cashew trees and rice fields". Fishermen in the region say their livelihoods will be wiped out.
South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
is exploring nuclear projects with a number of nations.
Europe
New reactors under construction in Finland (see Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant) and France, which were meant to lead a nuclear renaissance, have been delayed and are running over-budget.The plan to build at least one new nuclear power plant in the U.K. by 2017 will not be fulfilled, as the waiting list for pressure vessels (which are at the centre of a nuclear power plant) is too long. The British regulator, Kevin Allars told the BBC that no British nuclear power station has ever been built on time and that he would be every bit as tough on the contractors as his Finnish equivalent even if it meant further delays to the programme.
Austria, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Poland and Ireland have no active nuclear plants and none under construction, though "some have plans of varying credibility".
Following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
The is a series of equipment failures, nuclear meltdowns, and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, following the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011. The plant comprises six separate boiling water reactors originally designed by General Electric ,...
, anti-nuclear opposition intensified in Germany. On March 15, 2011, Angela Merkel
Angela Merkel
Angela Dorothea Merkel is the current Chancellor of Germany . Merkel, elected to the Bundestag from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, has been the chairwoman of the Christian Democratic Union since 2000, and chairwoman of the CDU-CSU parliamentary coalition from 2002 to 2005.From 2005 to 2009 she led a...
said that seven nuclear power plants which went online before 1980 would be temporarily closed and the time would be used to study speedier renewable energy commercialization
Renewable energy commercialization
Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, include biomass, hydroelectricity, geothermal power and heat...
.
The 2011 Japanese Fukushima nuclear accidents have led some European energy officials to "think twice about nuclear expansion".
As of 2011, the British government's programme to build new nuclear power stations in England has been "delayed by at least three months so that lessons can be learned from the accident at Fukushima in Japan".
Middle East
In December 2009 South KoreaSouth Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
won a contract for four nuclear power plants to be built in the United Arab Emirates
United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates, abbreviated as the UAE, or shortened to "the Emirates", is a state situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman, and Saudi Arabia, and sharing sea borders with Iraq, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and Iran.The UAE is a...
, for operation in 2017 to 2020.
On March 17, 2011, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu
Benjamin Netanyahu
Benjamin "Bibi" Netanyahu is the current Prime Minister of Israel. He serves also as the Chairman of the Likud Party, as a Knesset member, as the Health Minister of Israel, as the Pensioner Affairs Minister of Israel and as the Economic Strategy Minister of Israel.Netanyahu is the first and, to...
stated that Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
was now unlikely to pursue civil nuclear energy.
Russia
In April 2010 RussiaRussia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
announced new plans to start building 10 new nuclear reactors in the next year.
See also
- Anti-nuclear protestsAnti-nuclear protestsAnti-nuclear protests first emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In the United Kingdom, the first Aldermaston March, organised by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, took place in 1958. In 1961, at the height of the Cold War, about 50,000 women brought together by Women Strike for Peace...
- Generation IV reactorGeneration IV reactorGeneration IV reactors are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. Most of these designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030...
- List of nuclear power plants
- Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
- Next Generation Nuclear PlantNext Generation Nuclear PlantA Next Generation Nuclear Plant is a generation IV version of the Very High Temperature Reactor that could be coupled to a neighboring hydrogen production facility. It could also produce electricity and supply process heat...
- Nuclear accidents in the United StatesNuclear accidents in the United StatesAccording to a 2010 survey of energy accidents, there have been at least 56 accidents near nuclear reactors in the United States . The most serious of these was the Three Mile Island accident in 1979...
- Nuclear energy policyNuclear energy policyNuclear energy policy is a national and international policy concerning some or all aspects of nuclear energy, such as mining for nuclear fuel, extraction and processing of nuclear fuel from the ore, generating electricity by nuclear power, enriching and storing spent nuclear fuel and nuclear fuel...
- Nuclear power phase-outNuclear power phase-outA nuclear power phase-out is the discontinuation of usage of nuclear power for energy production. Often initiated because of concerns about nuclear power, phase-outs usually include shutting down nuclear power plants and looking towards renewable energy and other fuels.Austria was the first country...
- Nuclear power by countryNuclear power by countryThirty countries operate nuclear power stations, and there are a considerable number of new reactors being built in China, South Korea, India, Pakistan, and Russia...
Further reading
- Clarfield, Gerald H. and William M. Wiecek (1984). Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States 1940-1980, Harper & Row.
- Cooke, StephanieStephanie CookeStephanie S. Cooke is a journalist who began her reporting career in 1977 at the Associated Press. In 1980 she moved to McGraw-Hill in New York as a reporter for Nucleonics Week, NuclearFuel and Inside N.R.C. In 1984 she transferred to London and two years later covered the aftermath of the...
(2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc. - Elliott, DavidDavid Elliott (professor)David Elliott is Professor of Technology Policy at the Open University. He has created several courses in Design and Innovation, with special emphasis on how the innovation development process can be directed towards sustainable technologies...
(2007). Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future?Nuclear or Not?Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future? is a 2007 book edited by Professor David Elliott. The book offers various views and perspectives on nuclear power...
, Palgrave. - Ferguson, Charles D., (2007). Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks, Council on Foreign RelationsCouncil on Foreign RelationsThe Council on Foreign Relations is an American nonprofit nonpartisan membership organization, publisher, and think tank specializing in U.S. foreign policy and international affairs...
. - Herbst, Alan M. and George W. Hopley (2007). Nuclear Energy Now: Why the Time has come for the World's Most Misunderstood Energy Source, Wiley.
- Lowe, IanIan LoweIan Lowe is President of the Australian Conservation Foundation, Professor of Science, Technology and Society and former Head of the School of Science at Griffith University, as well as an adjunct professor at Sunshine Coast University and Flinders University. In 1996 he was chair-person of the...
(2007). Reaction Time: Climate Change and the Nuclear Option, Quarterly EssayQuarterly EssayQuarterly Essay is an Australian periodical that straddles the border between magazines and non-fiction books. Printed in a book-like page size and using a single-column format, each issue features a single extended essay of at least 20,000 words, with an introduction by the editor, and...
. - Schneider, MycleMycle SchneiderMycle Schneider is a nuclear energy consultant based in Paris, and lead author of The World Nuclear Industry Status Reports...
, Steve ThomasStephen Thomas (professor)Stephen Thomas is a professor at the University of Greenwich Business School, working in the area of energy policy. Before moving to the University of Greenwich in 2001, Thomas worked for 22 years at the University of Sussex.-Research work:...
, Antony FroggattAntony FroggattAntony Froggatt is an energy policy consultant and a senior research fellow at Chatham House. He is co-author of the The World Nuclear Industry Status Reports.-Biography:...
, Doug Koplow (August 2009). The World Nuclear Industry Status Report, German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Reactor Safety. - Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical PerspectiveThree Mile Island (book)Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective is a scholarly history of the Three Mile Island accident, written by J. Samuel Walker and published in 2004...
, University of California Press.