Norwegian dialects
Encyclopedia
The Norwegian dialects are commonly divided into 4 main groups, North Norwegian (nordnorsk), Trøndelag Norwegian (trøndersk
), West Norwegian (vestnorsk
), and East Norwegian (østnorsk). Sometimes Midland Norwegian (innlandsmål) is considered a fifth group.
The dialects are generally mutually intelligible, but differ significantly with regards to accent
, grammar
, syntax
, and vocabulary
. If not accustomed to a particular dialect, even a native Norwegian speaker may have difficulty understanding it. Dialects can be as local as farm clusters, but many linguists note an ongoing regionalization, diminishing or even elimination of local variations.
Normalized speech, following the written languages Bokmål and Nynorsk or the more conservative
Riksmål and Høgnorsk, is not in common use, except in parts of Finnmark
(where the original Sami
population learned Norwegian as a second language), in certain social groups in the major urban areas of Norway, in national broadcasting, and in courts and official decrees.
, for example, has characteristics in common with coastal dialects to the west, the dialects of northern Gudbrandsdalen to the south, and other dialects in Sør Trøndelag from the north. The linguist Einar Haugen
documented the particulars of the Oppdal dialect, and the writer Inge Krokann
used it as a literary device. Other transitional dialects include the dialects of Romsdal and Arendal.
On the other hand, newly industrialized communities near sources of hydroelectric power have developed dialects consistent with the region but in many ways unique. Studies in such places as Høyanger
, Odda
, Tyssedal
, Rjukan
, Notodden
, Sauda
, and others show that creolization
has effected the formation of new dialects in these areas.
Similarly, in the early 20th century a dialect closely approximating standard Bokmål arose in and around railway stations. This was known as stasjonsspråk ("station language") and may have contributed to changes in dialect around these centers.
This has led to various countercultural movements ranging from the adoption of radical forms of Oslo dialects among political radicals to movements preserving local dialects. There is widespread and growing acceptance that Norwegian linguistic diversity is worth preserving.
The trend today is a regionalisation of the dialects causing smaller dialectal traits to disappear and rural dialects to merge with their nearest larger dialectal variety.
One ending (western dialects)
Two different endings (eastern dialects)
The split distribution of endings is related to the syllable length of the verb in Old Norse. "Short-syllable" (kortstava) verbs in Norse kept their endings. The "long-syllable" (langstava) verbs lost their (unstressed) endings or had them converted to -e.
It is though present in some spoken dialects north of Oslo, Romsdal, south and northeast of Trondheim, and in all genuine Germanic varieties in northern Norway and Sweden. The grammatical phenomenon is highly threatened in the mentioned areas, while most speakers of genuine languages have been highly influenced by the national standard languages, using only the traditional accusative word form in both cases. The difference in meaning between the dative and accusative word forms is thus lost, and one must add more words to specify what is actually meant, or one will inevitably lose information.
Some people have the opinion that the difference between dative and accusative is old-fashioned, while others, especially speakers of modern German or Icelandic, have a natural sense for it. Few people in Scandinavia really understand the contextual difference, even if they have studied e.g. German for several years.
ex. the sentence Hvor mye er klokken? (literally: "How much is the clock?") i.e. "What time is it" can be put in the following forms: E klokka mykje? (Is the clock much?) (stress is on "the clock"), E a mytti klokka? (Is it much, the clock?) (stress on "is"), "Ka e klokken?" (literally: "What is the clock?")
(IPA [r]) for "r". However, for the last 200 years the uvular approximant (IPA [ʁ]) has been gaining ground in Western and Southern Norwegian dialects, with Kristiansand, Stavanger, and Bergen as centers. The uvular R has also been adopted in aspiring patricians in and around Oslo, to the point that it was for some time fashionable to "import" governesses from the Kristiansand area. In certain regions, such as Oslo, the flap has become realized as a retroflex flap (generally called "thick L") (IPA /ɽ/), which exists only in Norway, a few regions in Sweden, and in completely unrelated languages. The sound coexists with other retroflexions in Norwegian dialects. In some areas it also applies to words that end with "rd," for example with "gard" (farm) being pronounced /ɡɑːɽ/. The uvular R has gained less acceptance in eastern regions, and linguists speculate that dialects that use retroflexes have a "natural defense" against uvular R thus will not adopt it. However, the dialect of Arendal
retains the retroflexes, while featuring the uvular R in remaining positions, e.g. rart [ʁɑːʈ]
s /au/, /ei/, and /øy/, but the Norwegian spoken in the area around Setesdal
has shifted two of the traditional diphthongs and innovated four more from long vowels.
/ei/ > /ai/
/øy/ > /oy/
/iː/ > /ei/
/yː/ > /uy/
/uː/ > /eu/
/oː/ > /ou/
West Norwegian dialects have also innovated new diphthongs. In Midtre you can find the following.
/aː/ > /au/
/oː/ > /ou/
/uː/ > /eʉ/
/ei/ > /e/
/øy/ > /ø/
/au/ > /ø/
This shift originated in Old East Norse, which is reflected in the fact that Swedish and Danish overwhelmingly exhibit this change. Monphthongization in Norway ends on the coast west of Trondheim and extends southeast in a triangle into central Sweden. Some Norwegian dialects, east of Molde, for example, have only lost /ei/ and /øy/.
occurs for the n (IPA /nʲ/), l (/lʲ/), t (/tʲ/) and d (/dʲ/) sounds in varying degrees. Areas just south and southwest of Trondheim palatalize both the main and subordinate syllable in words (e.g., /kɑlːʲɑnʲ/), but other areas only palatalize the main syllable (/bɑlʲ/).
to the border between Troms and Finnmark.
Personal pronouns
Possessive pronouns
Trøndersk
Trøndersk is the Norwegian dialect spoken in the region Trøndelag, the district Nordmøre and the municipality Bindal in Norway as well as in Frostviken in northern Jämtland, Sweden, which was colonized in the 18th century by settlers from Nord-Trøndelag and transferred to Sweden as...
), West Norwegian (vestnorsk
Vestlandsk
Vestandsk or Vestlandske dialekter is a collective term for the dialects that are spoken on the West Coast in the area ranging from Romsdal in the north to Agder in the south...
), and East Norwegian (østnorsk). Sometimes Midland Norwegian (innlandsmål) is considered a fifth group.
The dialects are generally mutually intelligible, but differ significantly with regards to accent
Accent (linguistics)
In linguistics, an accent is a manner of pronunciation peculiar to a particular individual, location, or nation.An accent may identify the locality in which its speakers reside , the socio-economic status of its speakers, their ethnicity, their caste or social class, their first language In...
, grammar
Grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
, syntax
Syntax
In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in natural languages....
, and vocabulary
Vocabulary
A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge...
. If not accustomed to a particular dialect, even a native Norwegian speaker may have difficulty understanding it. Dialects can be as local as farm clusters, but many linguists note an ongoing regionalization, diminishing or even elimination of local variations.
Normalized speech, following the written languages Bokmål and Nynorsk or the more conservative
Conservative (language)
In linguistics, a conservative form, variety, or modality is one that has changed relatively little over its history, or which is relatively resistant to change...
Riksmål and Høgnorsk, is not in common use, except in parts of Finnmark
Finnmark
or Finnmárku is a county in the extreme northeast of Norway. By land it borders Troms county to the west, Finland to the south and Russia to the east, and by water, the Norwegian Sea to the northwest, and the Barents Sea to the north and northeast.The county was formerly known as Finmarkens...
(where the original Sami
Sami people
The Sami people, also spelled Sámi, or Saami, are the arctic indigenous people inhabiting Sápmi, which today encompasses parts of far northern Sweden, Norway, Finland, the Kola Peninsula of Russia, and the border area between south and middle Sweden and Norway. The Sámi are Europe’s northernmost...
population learned Norwegian as a second language), in certain social groups in the major urban areas of Norway, in national broadcasting, and in courts and official decrees.
Dialect groups
- West and South Norwegian
- South Norwegian (Aust-AgderAust-Agderis a county in Norway, bordering Telemark, Rogaland, and Vest-Agder. In 2002, there were 102,945 inhabitants, which is 2.2% of the total population in Norway. Its area is . The administrative center of the county is in Arendal....
, most of Vest-AgderVest-AgderIn the 16th century, Dutch merchant vessels began to visit ports in southern Norway to purchase salmon and other goods. Soon thereafter the export of timber began, as oak from southern Norway was exceptionally well suited for shipbuilding...
and FyresdalFyresdalFyresdal is a municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Vest-Telemark. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Moland. The municipality of Moland was established on 1 January 1838 . In 1879, the name was changed to...
, NissedalNissedalNissedal is a municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Vest-Telemark. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Treungen. The municipality of Nissedal was established on January 1, 1838 .- Etymology :The modern form of the name stems...
, DrangedalDrangedalDrangedal is a municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Grenland. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Prestestranda. The municipality of Drangedal was established on 1 January 1838...
and KragerøKragerøis a town and municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Vestmar. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Kragerø....
in TelemarkTelemarkis a county in Norway, bordering Vestfold, Buskerud, Hordaland, Rogaland and Aust-Agder. The county administration is in Skien. Until 1919 the county was known as Bratsberg amt.-Location:...
) - South-West Norwegian (inner parts of Sogn og FjordaneSogn og Fjordaneis a county in Norway, bordering Møre og Romsdal, Oppland, Buskerud, and Hordaland. The county administration is in the town of Hermansverk in Leikanger municipality while the largest town is Førde....
, HordalandHordalandis a county in Norway, bordering Sogn og Fjordane, Buskerud, Telemark and Rogaland. Hordaland is the third largest county after Akershus and Oslo by population. The county administration is located in Bergen...
(except the city of Bergen), RogalandRogalandis a county in Western Norway, bordering Hordaland, Telemark, Aust-Agder and Vest-Agder. It is the center of the Norwegian petroleum industry, and as a result of this, Rogaland has the lowest unemployment rate of any county in Norway, 1.1%...
(Stavanger), and western parts of Vest-AgderVest-AgderIn the 16th century, Dutch merchant vessels began to visit ports in southern Norway to purchase salmon and other goods. Soon thereafter the export of timber began, as oak from southern Norway was exceptionally well suited for shipbuilding...
) - Bergen Norwegian or BergenskBergenskBergensk, or the Bergen dialect, is a dialect of Norwegian used in Bergen, Norway. It is easy for Norwegians to recognise, as it, perhaps particularly phonetically, is more distinguishable from other dialects in Hordaland than for example the Stavanger dialect is from the dialects of Rogaland and...
(Bergen) - North-West Norwegian (RomsdalRomsdalRomsdal is the name of a traditional district in the Norwegian county Møre og Romsdal, located between Nordmøre and Sunnmøre. The district of Romsdal comprises Aukra, Fræna, Midsund, Molde, Nesset, Rauma, Sandøy, and Vestnes. It is named for the valley of Romsdalen, which covers part of Rauma.The...
, SunnmøreSunnmøreSunnmøre is the southernmost traditional district of the western Norwegian county of Møre og Romsdal. Its main city is Ålesund. The region comprises the municipalities of Giske, Hareid, Herøy, Norddal, Sande, Skodje, Haram, Stordal, Stranda, Sula, Sykkylven, Ulstein, Vanylven, Volda, Ørskog,...
, NordfjordNordfjordNordfjord is a fjord and a traditional district in the northern part of Sogn og Fjordane county in Western Norway. The district comprises the municipalities of Selje, Vågsøy, Bremanger, Eid, Gloppen, Hornindal, and Stryn. Nordfjord covers an area of and is home to a population of approximately...
, SunnfjordSunnfjordSunnfjord is a traditional district in Western Norway located in Sogn og Fjordane county. It includes the municipalities of Askvoll, Fjaler, Flora, Førde, Gaular, Jølster, Naustdal, and the southernmost parts of Bremanger...
and outer parts of SognSognSogn is a traditional district in Western Norway . It is located in the county of Sogn og Fjordane, surrounding the Sognefjord. Sogn consists of the municipalities of Aurland, Balestrand, Hyllestad, Høyanger, Gulen, Leikanger, Luster, Lærdal, Sogndal, Solund, Vik, and Årdal. The district covers ...
)
- South Norwegian (Aust-Agder
- North Norwegian
- HelgelandHelgelandHelgeland is the most southerly district in Northern Norway. Generally speaking, Helgeland refers to the part of Nordland county that is located south of the Arctic Circle. The district covers an area of about , with nearly 79,000 inhabitants...
Norwegian (NordlandNordlandis a county in Norway in the North Norway region, bordering Troms in the north, Nord-Trøndelag in the south, Norrbottens län in Sweden to the east, Västerbottens län to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The county was formerly known as Nordlandene amt. The county administration is...
county south of SaltfjelletSaltfjelletSaltfjellet is a mountain area in Nordland, Norway that separates the two regions of Helgeland and Salten. It is also a cultural border between the Southern and Central parts of Sápmi.-Geography and environment:...
, except for BindalBindalBindal is a municipality in the Helgeland region in the extreme southwest part of Nordland county, Norway. The administrative centre is the village of Terråk...
) - Nordland Norwegian (Nordland county north of Saltfjellet)
- Troms Norwegian (TromsTromsor Romsa is a county in North Norway, bordering Finnmark to the northeast and Nordland in the southwest. To the south is Norrbotten Län in Sweden and further southeast is a shorter border with Lapland Province in Finland. To the west is the Norwegian Sea...
county, except for BarduBarduBardu is a municipality in Troms county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Setermoen, the largest urban area in the municipality.Norway's largest military garrison is located at Setermoen...
and MålselvMålselvMålselv is a municipality in Troms county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Moen. Some other villages include Andslimoen, Bardufoss, Alappmoen, Holmen, Fossmoen, and Heggelia...
) - Finnmark Norwegian FinnmarkFinnmarkor Finnmárku is a county in the extreme northeast of Norway. By land it borders Troms county to the west, Finland to the south and Russia to the east, and by water, the Norwegian Sea to the northwest, and the Barents Sea to the north and northeast.The county was formerly known as Finmarkens...
county, except for KautokeinoKautokeinoor Guovdageaidnu , is a municipality in Finnmark county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Guovdageaidnu/Kautokeino...
, KarasjokKarasjokKárášjohka or is a village and municipality in Finnmark county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Karasjok.-Name:Karasjok is a Norwegianized form of the Sámi name Kárášjohka...
, TanaTana, NorwayDeatnu or Tana is a municipality in Finnmark county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Tana Bru....
and NessebyNessebyUnjárga or Nesseby is a municipality in Finnmark county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Varangerbotn....
.
- Helgeland
- East Norwegian
- Vikvær Norwegian (VestfoldVestfoldis a county in Norway, bordering Buskerud and Telemark. The county administration is in Tønsberg.Vestfold is located west of the Oslofjord, as the name indicates. It includes many smaller, but well-known towns in Norway, such as Larvik, Sandefjord, Tønsberg and Horten. The river Numedalslågen runs...
, ØstfoldØstfoldis a county in southeastern Norway, bordering Akershus and southwestern Sweden , while Buskerud and Vestfold is on the other side of the bay. The seat of the county administration is Sarpsborg, and Fredrikstad is the largest city.Many manufacturing facilities are situated here. Moss and...
, and adjacent lowland parts of TelemarkTelemarkis a county in Norway, bordering Vestfold, Buskerud, Hordaland, Rogaland and Aust-Agder. The county administration is in Skien. Until 1919 the county was known as Bratsberg amt.-Location:...
, BuskerudBuskerudis a county in Norway, bordering Akershus, Oslo, Oppland, Sogn og Fjordane, Hordaland, Telemark, and Vestfold. The county administration is located in Drammen.-Geography:...
and AkershusAkershus- Geography :The county is conventionally divided into the traditional districts Follo and Romerike, which fill the vast part of the county, as well as the small exclave west of Oslo that consists of Asker and Bærum...
) - Middle East Norwegian (RingerikeRingerikeoskar er kjempe kulRingerike is a municipality in Buskerud county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Ringerike...
, RomerikeRomerikeRomerike is a traditional district located north-east of Oslo, in what is today south-eastern Norway. It consists of the Akershus municipalities Fet, Lørenskog, Nittedal, Rælingen, Skedsmo, Sørum and Aurskog-Høland in the southern end , and Ullensaker, Gjerdrum, Nannestad, Nes, Eidsvoll and Hurdal...
, and OsloOsloOslo is a municipality, as well as the capital and most populous city in Norway. As a municipality , it was established on 1 January 1838. Founded around 1048 by King Harald III of Norway, the city was largely destroyed by fire in 1624. The city was moved under the reign of Denmark–Norway's King...
) - Oppland Norwegian (southern HedmarkHedmarkis a county in Norway, bordering Sør-Trøndelag, Oppland and Akershus. The county administration is in Hamar.Hedmark makes up the northeastern part of Østlandet, the southeastern part of the country. It includes a long part of the borderline with Sweden, Dalarna County and Värmland County. The...
and south-eastern OpplandOpplandis a county in Norway, bordering Sør-Trøndelag, Møre og Romsdal, Sogn og Fjordane, Buskerud, Akershus, Oslo and Hedmark. The county administration is in Lillehammer. Oppland is, together with Hedmark, one of the only two landlocked counties of Norway....
) - ØsterdalØsterdalenØsterdalen is a valley and traditional district in Hedmark County, in Eastern Norway. It consisting of the municipalities Rendalen, Alvdal, Folldal,Tynset, Tolga and Os in the north, Elverum, Stor-Elvdal, Engerdal, Trysil and Åmot in the south.-Geography:...
Norwegian (northern HedmarkHedmarkis a county in Norway, bordering Sør-Trøndelag, Oppland and Akershus. The county administration is in Hamar.Hedmark makes up the northeastern part of Østlandet, the southeastern part of the country. It includes a long part of the borderline with Sweden, Dalarna County and Värmland County. The...
)
- Vikvær Norwegian (Vestfold
- Midland Norwegian
- GudbrandsdalGudbrandsdalThe Gudbrandsdalen is a valley and traditional district in the Norwegian county of Oppland. The valley is oriented in a north-westerly direction from Lillehammer at Mjøsa, extending 230 km toward Romsdal...
Norwegian (northern OpplandOpplandis a county in Norway, bordering Sør-Trøndelag, Møre og Romsdal, Sogn og Fjordane, Buskerud, Akershus, Oslo and Hedmark. The county administration is in Lillehammer. Oppland is, together with Hedmark, one of the only two landlocked counties of Norway....
) - ValdresValdresValdres is a traditional district in central, southern Norway, situated between Gudbrandsdal and Hallingdal.Administratively, Valdres belongs to Oppland. It consists of the municipalities Nord-Aurdal, Sør-Aurdal, Øystre Slidre, Vestre Slidre, Vang and Etnedal. The main town in the region is...
and HallingdalHallingdalHallingdal is a valley and traditional district in Buskerud county in Norway. It consists of the municipalities of Flå, Nes, Gol, Hemsedal, Ål and Hol.-History:Ancient routes went to Vestlandet through Valdres and Hallingdal and down Røldal to Odda...
Norwegian (south-west OpplandOpplandis a county in Norway, bordering Sør-Trøndelag, Møre og Romsdal, Sogn og Fjordane, Buskerud, Akershus, Oslo and Hedmark. The county administration is in Lillehammer. Oppland is, together with Hedmark, one of the only two landlocked counties of Norway....
and western BuskerudBuskerudis a county in Norway, bordering Akershus, Oslo, Oppland, Sogn og Fjordane, Hordaland, Telemark, and Vestfold. The county administration is located in Drammen.-Geography:...
) - Western Telemark Norwegian (VinjeVinjeVinje is a municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Vest-Telemark. The administrative center of the municipality is the village of Åmot.-Name:...
, TokkeTokkeTokke is a municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Vest-Telemark. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Dalen. The municipality of Tokke was created on 1 January 1964 upon the merger of the two older municipalities of Lårdal and Mo...
and KviteseidKviteseidKviteseid is a municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Vest-Telemark. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Kviteseid...
) - Eastern Telemark Norwegian (TinnTinnTinn is a municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Øst-Telemark. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Rjukan....
, HjartdalHjartdalHjartdal is a municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Øst-Telemark. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Sauland....
, and upper NumedalNumedalNumedal is a traditional district and valley Buskerud, Norway. Running north–south, it extends between Kongsberg in the south to Rødberg in the north, passing through the municipalities of Kongsberg, Flesberg, Rollag and Nore og Uvdal.. The river Numedalslågen, the third-longest in the country,...
)
- Gudbrandsdal
- Trøndelag NorwegianTrønderskTrøndersk is the Norwegian dialect spoken in the region Trøndelag, the district Nordmøre and the municipality Bindal in Norway as well as in Frostviken in northern Jämtland, Sweden, which was colonized in the 18th century by settlers from Nord-Trøndelag and transferred to Sweden as...
- Outer Trøndelag Norwegian (NordmøreNordmøreNordmøre is a traditional district in the Norwegian county of Møre og Romsdal. The area comprises the northern third of the county including the municipalities of Kristiansund, Averøy, Tingvoll, Surnadal, Rindal, Aure, Halsa, Eide, Sunndal, Gjemnes, and Smøla...
, outer Sør-TrøndelagSør-Trøndelag- References :...
, and FosenFosenFosen is a traditional district in Trøndelag, consisting of the municipalities Osen, Roan, Åfjord, Bjugn, Ørland, Rissa, Agdenes, Snillfjord, Hemne, Hitra and Frøya. The district is dominated by forested valleys, lakes, coastal cliffs but also shallow areas, and in the interior mountains reaching...
) - Inner Trøndelag Norwegian (inner Sør-TrøndelagSør-Trøndelag- References :...
, InnheradInnheradInnherred or Innherad is a traditional district in Nord-Trøndelag county in the central part of Norway. It consists of the areas around the inner part of the Trondheimsfjord including the municipalities of Levanger, Frosta, Steinkjer, Verdal, Inderøy, Mosvik, and Verran. Sometimes the...
, LierneLierneLierne is a municipality in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Namdalen region, and it is the largest municipality in Trøndelag. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Sandvika. Other villages include Inderdal, Sørli, and Tunnsjø senter...
, and SnåsaSnåsaSnåsa is a municipality in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Innherred region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Snåsa. Other villages include Agle and Jørstad....
) - Namdal Norwegian (NamdalenNamdalenNamdalen is a traditional district in the central part of Norway, consisting of the municipalities Namsos, Grong, Overhalla, Røyrvik, Fosnes, Nærøy, Høylandet, Namdalseid, Flatanger, Lierne, Leka, Namsskogan, and Vikna, all in Nord-Trøndelag county. The district has two towns: Kolvereid and Namsos...
and surrounding coastal areas) - South-eastern Trøndersk (RørosRørosis a town and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Gauldalen region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Røros. Other villages include Brekken, Glåmos, Feragen, Galåa, and Hitterdalen....
, SelbuSelbuSelbu is a municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Mebonden. Other villages in Selbu include Flora, Fossan, Hyttbakken, Innbygda, Selbustrand, Tømra, and Vikvarvet.-General information:...
, TydalTydalTydal is a municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Ås. Other villages include Østby, Gressli, Aunet, and Stugudalen. There is a school and a kindergarten in Tydal....
, HoltålenHoltålenHoltålen is a municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Gauldalen region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Ålen. Other villages include Hessdalen, Aunegrenda, Haltdalen, and Renbygda.-General information:...
, OppdalOppdalis a village and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Dovre region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Oppdal. Other villages in the municipality include Lønset, Vognillan, Fagerhaug, and Holan...
)
- Outer Trøndelag Norwegian (Nordmøre
Evolution
Owing to geography and climate, Norwegian communities were often isolated from each other till the early 20th century. As a result, local dialects had a tendency to be influenced by each other in singular ways while developing their own idiosyncrasies. The community of OppdalOppdal
is a village and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Dovre region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Oppdal. Other villages in the municipality include Lønset, Vognillan, Fagerhaug, and Holan...
, for example, has characteristics in common with coastal dialects to the west, the dialects of northern Gudbrandsdalen to the south, and other dialects in Sør Trøndelag from the north. The linguist Einar Haugen
Einar Haugen
Einar Ingvald Haugen was an American linguist, author and Professor at University of Wisconsin–Madison and Harvard University.-Biography:Haugen was born in Sioux City, Iowa to Norwegians from the town of Oppdal in Norway. When he was a young child, the family moved back to Oppdal for a few years,...
documented the particulars of the Oppdal dialect, and the writer Inge Krokann
Inge Krokann
Inge Krokann was a Norwegian writer. Because his writing is so strongly tied in the use of dialect and idiosyncratic nynorsk, his works are largely inaccessible and arguably untranslatable.His work was characterized by:...
used it as a literary device. Other transitional dialects include the dialects of Romsdal and Arendal.
On the other hand, newly industrialized communities near sources of hydroelectric power have developed dialects consistent with the region but in many ways unique. Studies in such places as Høyanger
Høyanger
is a municipality in the county of Sogn og Fjordane, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Sogn. The administrative center is the village of Høyanger, which has 2177 inhabitants . Other villages in Høyanger include Lavik, Kyrkjebø, Austreim, and Vadheim...
, Odda
Odda
is a municipality and town in the county of Hordaland, Norway. Odda was separated from Ullensvang on 1 July 1913 and on 1 January 1964 Røldal was merged with Odda. The town of Odda is the centre of the landscape of Hardanger, located at the end of the Hardangerfjord.In 1927, Erling Johnson,...
, Tyssedal
Tyssedal
Tyssedal is a village in Odda municipality in Norway with about 700 inhabitants and is situated 6 km north of Odda center. Tyssedal is located in a charming environment between fjords and mountains, in the fjord arm Sørfjorden and at the edge of the Hardangervidda mountain plateau.Tyssedal is...
, Rjukan
Rjukan
Rjukan is a town and the administrative center of Tinn municipality in Telemark . It is situated in Vestfjorddalen, between Møsvatn and Tinnsjå, and got its name after Rjukanfossen west of the town. The Tinn municipality council granted township status for Rjukan in 1996. The town has 3 386...
, Notodden
Notodden
is a town and municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Øst-Telemark. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Notodden....
, Sauda
Sauda
is a municipality and industrial town in Rogaland county, Norway. It is part of the region of Ryfylke. Sauda was separated from Suldal in 1842...
, and others show that creolization
Creole language
A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages; creoles differ from pidgins in that they have been nativized by children as their primary language, making them have features of natural languages that are normally missing from...
has effected the formation of new dialects in these areas.
Similarly, in the early 20th century a dialect closely approximating standard Bokmål arose in and around railway stations. This was known as stasjonsspråk ("station language") and may have contributed to changes in dialect around these centers.
Social dynamics
Till the 20th century, rural dialects were considered an attribute of the uneducated provincial class in Norway. Social mobility involved conforming speech to standard Riksmål, a pattern that persists to this day in certain urban areas. Studies show that speakers of dialect tend to change their usage in formal settings to approximate the formal written language.This has led to various countercultural movements ranging from the adoption of radical forms of Oslo dialects among political radicals to movements preserving local dialects. There is widespread and growing acceptance that Norwegian linguistic diversity is worth preserving.
The trend today is a regionalisation of the dialects causing smaller dialectal traits to disappear and rural dialects to merge with their nearest larger dialectal variety.
Distinctions
There are many ways to distinguish among Norwegian dialects. These criteria are drawn from the work Johnsen, Egil Børre (ed.) (1987) Vårt Eget Språk/Talemålet. H. Aschehoug & Co. ISBN 82-03-17092-7. These criteria generally provide the analytical means for identifying most dialects, though most Norwegians rely on experience to tell them apart.Infinitive forms
One of the most important differences among dialects is in the form the verb takes in infinitive forms. There are five varieties in Norwegian dialects, constituting two groups:One ending (western dialects)
- Infinitive ending with -a, e.g., å vera, å bita, common in southwestern Norway, including areas around Bergen and StavangerStavangerStavanger is a city and municipality in the county of Rogaland, Norway.Stavanger municipality has a population of 126,469. There are 197,852 people living in the Stavanger conurbation, making Stavanger the fourth largest city, but the third largest urban area, in Norway...
- Infinitive ending with -e, e.g., å være, å bite, common in TromsTromsor Romsa is a county in North Norway, bordering Finnmark to the northeast and Nordland in the southwest. To the south is Norrbotten Län in Sweden and further southeast is a shorter border with Lapland Province in Finland. To the west is the Norwegian Sea...
, FinnmarkFinnmarkor Finnmárku is a county in the extreme northeast of Norway. By land it borders Troms county to the west, Finland to the south and Russia to the east, and by water, the Norwegian Sea to the northwest, and the Barents Sea to the north and northeast.The county was formerly known as Finmarkens...
, areas of Sogn og FjordaneSogn og Fjordaneis a county in Norway, bordering Møre og Romsdal, Oppland, Buskerud, and Hordaland. The county administration is in the town of Hermansverk in Leikanger municipality while the largest town is Førde....
and Møre og RomsdalMøre og Romsdalis a county in the northernmost part of Western Norway. It borders the counties of Sør-Trøndelag, Oppland and Sogn og Fjordane. The county administration is located in Molde, while Ålesund is the largest city.-The name:...
, Southern counties, and a few other areas. - Apocopic infinitive, where no vowel is added to the infinitive form, e.g., å vær, å bit, common in certain areas of NordlandNordlandis a county in Norway in the North Norway region, bordering Troms in the north, Nord-Trøndelag in the south, Norrbottens län in Sweden to the east, Västerbottens län to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The county was formerly known as Nordlandene amt. The county administration is...
Two different endings (eastern dialects)
- Split infinitive, in which the verb will end either with -a or -e, e.g., å væra, å bite, common in Eastern Norway
- Split infinitive, with apocope, e.g., å væra (værra/vårrå/varra), å bit, common in some areas in Sør-TrøndelagSør-Trøndelag- References :...
and Nord-TrøndelagNord-Trøndelagis a county constituting the northern part of Trøndelag in Norway. As of 2010, the county had 131,555 inhabitants, making it the country's fourth-least populated county. The largest municipalities are Stjørdal, Steinkjer—the county seat, Levanger, Namsos and Verdal, all with between 21,000 and...
The split distribution of endings is related to the syllable length of the verb in Old Norse. "Short-syllable" (kortstava) verbs in Norse kept their endings. The "long-syllable" (langstava) verbs lost their (unstressed) endings or had them converted to -e.
Dative case
The original Germanic contextual difference between the dative and accusative cases, standardized in e.g. modern German and Icelandic, has degenerated in spoken Danish and Swedish, a tendency which spread to Norwegian Bokmål too. Nynorsk does not use much of the difference either.It is though present in some spoken dialects north of Oslo, Romsdal, south and northeast of Trondheim, and in all genuine Germanic varieties in northern Norway and Sweden. The grammatical phenomenon is highly threatened in the mentioned areas, while most speakers of genuine languages have been highly influenced by the national standard languages, using only the traditional accusative word form in both cases. The difference in meaning between the dative and accusative word forms is thus lost, and one must add more words to specify what is actually meant, or one will inevitably lose information.
Some people have the opinion that the difference between dative and accusative is old-fashioned, while others, especially speakers of modern German or Icelandic, have a natural sense for it. Few people in Scandinavia really understand the contextual difference, even if they have studied e.g. German for several years.
Future tense
There are regional variations in the use of future tense.- Han kommer/kjem til å reise
- Han blir å reise
- Han blir reisan
- Han skal reise
Syntax
Syntax can vary greatly between dialects, and the tense is important for the listener to get the meaning. For instance, a question can be formed without the traditional "asking-words" (how, where, what, who..)ex. the sentence Hvor mye er klokken? (literally: "How much is the clock?") i.e. "What time is it" can be put in the following forms: E klokka mykje? (Is the clock much?) (stress is on "the clock"), E a mytti klokka? (Is it much, the clock?) (stress on "is"), "Ka e klokken?" (literally: "What is the clock?")
Eliminating r in the plural indefinite form
In some areas, the r is not pronounced in all or some words in their plural indefinite form. There are four categories:- The r is retained – most of Eastern Norway, the South-Eastern coast, and across to areas north and east of Stavanger.
- The r disappears altogether – Southern tip of Norway, coastal areas north of Bergen, and inland almost to Trondheim.
- The r is retained in certain words but not in others – coastal areas around Trondheim, and most of Northern Norway
- The r is retained in certain words and in weak feminine nouns, but not in others – one coast area in Nordland.
"R" variants
Most dialects use an alveolar flap (IPA [ɾ]) or alveolar trillAlveolar trill
The alveolar trill is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar trills is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r. It is commonly called the rolled R, rolling R, or trilled R...
(IPA [r]) for "r". However, for the last 200 years the uvular approximant (IPA [ʁ]) has been gaining ground in Western and Southern Norwegian dialects, with Kristiansand, Stavanger, and Bergen as centers. The uvular R has also been adopted in aspiring patricians in and around Oslo, to the point that it was for some time fashionable to "import" governesses from the Kristiansand area. In certain regions, such as Oslo, the flap has become realized as a retroflex flap (generally called "thick L") (IPA /ɽ/), which exists only in Norway, a few regions in Sweden, and in completely unrelated languages. The sound coexists with other retroflexions in Norwegian dialects. In some areas it also applies to words that end with "rd," for example with "gard" (farm) being pronounced /ɡɑːɽ/. The uvular R has gained less acceptance in eastern regions, and linguists speculate that dialects that use retroflexes have a "natural defense" against uvular R thus will not adopt it. However, the dialect of Arendal
Arendal
is a town and municipality in the county of Aust-Agder, Norway. Arendal belongs to the traditional region of Sørlandet.The town of Arendal is the administrative center the municipality and also of Aust-Agder county...
retains the retroflexes, while featuring the uvular R in remaining positions, e.g. rart [ʁɑːʈ]
Diphthongization
Old Norse had the diphthongDiphthong
A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...
s /au/, /ei/, and /øy/, but the Norwegian spoken in the area around Setesdal
Setesdal
Setesdal is a valley and a traditional district in Aust-Agder County in southern Norway. It consists of the municipalities of Bykle, Valle, Bygland, Iveland, and Evje og Hornnes....
has shifted two of the traditional diphthongs and innovated four more from long vowels.
/ei/ > /ai/
/øy/ > /oy/
/iː/ > /ei/
/yː/ > /uy/
/uː/ > /eu/
/oː/ > /ou/
West Norwegian dialects have also innovated new diphthongs. In Midtre you can find the following.
/aː/ > /au/
/oː/ > /ou/
/uː/ > /eʉ/
Monophthongization
The Old Norse diphthongs /au/, /ei/, and /øy/ have experienced monophthongization in certain dialects of modern Norwegian./ei/ > /e/
/øy/ > /ø/
/au/ > /ø/
This shift originated in Old East Norse, which is reflected in the fact that Swedish and Danish overwhelmingly exhibit this change. Monphthongization in Norway ends on the coast west of Trondheim and extends southeast in a triangle into central Sweden. Some Norwegian dialects, east of Molde, for example, have only lost /ei/ and /øy/.
Palatalization
In areas north of an imaginary line drawn between Oslo and Bergen, palatalizationPalatalization
In linguistics, palatalization , also palatization, may refer to two different processes by which a sound, usually a consonant, comes to be produced with the tongue in a position in the mouth near the palate....
occurs for the n (IPA /nʲ/), l (/lʲ/), t (/tʲ/) and d (/dʲ/) sounds in varying degrees. Areas just south and southwest of Trondheim palatalize both the main and subordinate syllable in words (e.g., /kɑlːʲɑnʲ/), but other areas only palatalize the main syllable (/bɑlʲ/).
Leveling
(Jamning/Jevning in Norwegian) This is a phenomenon in which the root vowel and end vowel in a word approximate each other. For example, the old Norse viku has become våkkå or vukku in certain dialects. There are two varieties in Norwegian dialects – one in which the two vowels become identical, the other where they are only similar. Leveling exists only in inland areas in Southern Norway, and areas around Trondheim.Voicing
Voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) have become voiced (/b/, /d/, /ɡ/) on the extreme southern coast of Norway, including Kristiansand, Mandal and Stavanger. The same phenomenon appears in Sør-Trøndelag and one area in Nordland.Segmentation
The geminate /ll/ in southwestern Norway has become /dl/, while just east in southcentral Norwegian the final /l/ is lost, leaving /d/. The same sequence has been palatalized in Northern Norway, leaving the palatal lateral /ʎ/.Assimilation
The second consonant in the consonant clusters /nd/, /ld/, and /nɡ/ has assimilated to the first across most of Norway, leaving /n/, /l/, and /ŋ/ respectively. Western Norway, though not in Bergen, retains the /ld/ cluster. In Northern Norway this same cluster is realized as the palatal lateral /ʎ/.Vowel shift in strong verbs
In all but Oslo and coastal areas just south of the capital, the present tense of certain verbs take on a new vowel (umlaut), e.g., å fare becomes fer (in Oslo, it becomes farer).Consonant shift in conjugation of masculine nouns
Although used less frequently, a subtle shift takes place in conjugating a masculine noun from indefinitive to definitive, e.g., from bekk to bekkjen (/becːen/, /becçen/ or /beçːen/. This is found in rural dialects along the coast from FarsundFarsund
is a town and municipality in the county of Vest-Agder, Norway.The town of Farsund was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 , although already recognized as a trading center in 1795...
to the border between Troms and Finnmark.
The kj / sj merge
Many people, especially in the younger generation, have lost the differentiation between the kj (IPA /ç/) and sj (IPA /ʃ/) sounds, merging both as sj /ʃ/. This is considered to be a normal development in language change (although as most language changes, the older generation and more conservative language users often lament the "degradation" of the language. The functional load (the sum total of words that use this kj / sj distinction) is relatively small, and as often happens, sounds with small functional loads merge.Tonemes and intonation
There are great differences between the intonation systems of different Norwegian dialects.First person pronoun, nominative plural
Three variations of the first person plural nominative pronoun exist in Norwegian dialects:- Vi, , common in parts of Eastern Norway, most of Northern Norway, coastal areas close to TrondheimTrondheimTrondheim , historically, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. With a population of 173,486, it is the third most populous municipality and city in the country, although the fourth largest metropolitan area. It is the administrative centre of...
, and one sliver of Western Norway - Me, mø or mi, in Southern and most of Western Norway, areas inland of Trondheim, and a few smaller areas
- Oss, common in areas of Sør Trøndelag, Gudbrandsdalen, Nordmøre and parts of Sunnmøre.
First person pronoun, nominative singular
There is considerable variety in the way the first person singular nominative pronoun is pronounced in Norwegian dialects. They appear to fall into three groups, within which there are also variations:- E(g), æ(g), and æi(g), in which the hard 'g' may or may not be included. This is common in most of Southern and Western Norway, Trøndelag, and most of Northern Norway. Some places in Western Norway, it's common to say "Ej".
- I , in a few areas in Western Norway (RomsdalRomsdalRomsdal is the name of a traditional district in the Norwegian county Møre og Romsdal, located between Nordmøre and Sunnmøre. The district of Romsdal comprises Aukra, Fræna, Midsund, Molde, Nesset, Rauma, Sandøy, and Vestnes. It is named for the valley of Romsdalen, which covers part of Rauma.The...
/MoldeMoldeis a city and municipality in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It is part of the Romsdal region. The municipality is located on the Romsdal Peninsula, surrounding the Fannefjord and Moldefjord...
) and Snåsa in Nord Trøndelag - Je, jæ, or jæi, in areas around Oslo, and north along the Swedish border, almost to Trondheim, as well as one region in Troms
Personal pronouns
| Regions | I | You | He | She | It | We | You | They |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bokmål | Jeg | Du | Han | Hun | Det | Vi | Dere | De, dem |
| Nynorsk | Eg | Du | Han | Ho | Det | Vi, me | De, dykk | Dei |
| South Eastern Norway | Je, jæ, jæi | Du, ru, u | Hæn, hænnom (dative) | Hun, ho, hu, ha, a, henner | Det | Vi, oss, øss, æss | Dere, ere, døkk, dø | Dem, rem, 'rdem, em, døm, dom |
| Most of Western and Southern Norway | Eg, e, æ, æg, æi, æig, jeg | Du, dø, døø, døh | Han, an, ha'an | Hun, ho, hu, hau, hon, u | Det, da | Vi, me, mi | Dere, då(k)ke, dåkkar, dåkk, de, dåkki, dikko(n) | De, dei, di, di'i |
| Trøndelag and most of Northern Norway | Æ, æg, i, ig, jæ, e, eg | Du, dæ, dø, u, dæ'æ | Han,Hanj, hin, hån | Hun, hu, ho, a | Det, dæ, 'e | Vi, åss, oss, åkke, me, mi | Dåkk, dåkke, dåkker, dåkkæ, dere, ere, dykk, di | Dei, dem, dæm, 'em, di, r'ej |
Possessive pronouns
| Regions | My | Your | His | Her | Its | Our | Your | Their |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bokmål | Min, mi, mitt | Din, di, ditt | Hans | Hennes | dens, dets | Vår | Deres | Deres |
| Nynorsk | Min, mi, mitt | Din, di, ditt | Hans | Hennar | Rarely used. When used: dess | Vår | Dykkar | Deira |
| South Eastern Norway | Min, mi, mitt, mø | Din, di, ditt | Hans, hannes, hanns, hass | Hennes, henners, hun sin, hos, hinnes | Dets, det sitt | Vårs, vørs, vår, 'år, våres | Deres, døres, | Dems, demmes, demma, demses, dem sitt, dommes |
| Most of Western and Southern Norway | Min, mi, mitt | Din, di, ditt | Hans, hannes, høns, hønnes | Hennes, hos, høvs, haus, hennar, hen(n)as | nonexistent or dens, dets | Vår, 'år, våres, våras, åkkas, åkka | Deres, dokkars, dokkar, dåkas, dekan | Demmes, dies, dis, deisa, deis, daus, døvs, deira, deiras |
| Trøndelag and most of Northern Norway | Min, mi, mitt, mæjn | Din, ditt, dij, dej'j | Hans, Hannjes, hanses, hannes, hanner, hånner | Hennes, hunnes, huns | Dets, det sitt | Vår, våkke, vår', våres, vårres | Deres, dokkers, 'eras | Dems, demma, dæres, dæmmes, dæmmers |
The word "not"
The Norwegian word for the English not exists in five main categories:- ikke – Oslo, Kristiansand, most of Finnmark, Vestfold and low-land parts of Telemark, and some cities in Nordland.
- ikkje – most of Southern, Northern and Western Norway.
- ittj – Trøndelag
- itte, or ittje – areas north of Oslo, along the Swedish border
- inte, ente – Mostly along the Swedish border south of Oslo in Østfold
Question words
Some common question words take on forms such as:| Regions | who | what | where | which | how | why | when |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bokmål | hvem | hva | hvor | hvilken | hvordan, hvorledes, åssen | hvorfor | når |
| Nynorsk | kven | kva | kor, kvar | kva for ein/ei/eit | korleis, koss, hoss(en) | kvifor, korfor | når, kortid |
| South Eastern Norway | hvem, åkke, høkken, håkke | hva, å da, å, hø da, hå | hvor, hvorhen, å hen, å henner, hørt, hærre | hvilken, åkken, åssen, hvem, hø slags, hæsse | hvordan, åssen, høssen, hæsse | hvorfor, åffer, å for, høffer, hæffer | ti, å ti, når, hærnér |
| Most of Western Norway | kven, ken, kin, kem, kim | kva, ka, ke, kæ, kå | kor, kest, korhen/korhenne, hen | kva, ka, kvaslags, kaslags, kasla, kallas, kalla, kass, kvafor, kafor, keslags, kæslags, koffø en | kordan, korsn, korleis, karleis, koss, koss(e)n | korfor, koffor, kvifor, kafor, keffår, koffø | når, ti, kati, korti, koti, kå ti |
| Trøndelag and most of Northern Norway | kæm, kem, kånn, kenn | ka, ke | kor, korhæn/korhænne, kehænn | kolles, koss, korsn, kossn, kasla, kass, kafor, kafør, kåfår, kess, kafla | kolles, koss, kess, korsn, kossn, kordan, korran, kelles | korfor, kafor, kafør, koffer, koffør, koffår, kåffår, keffer | når, når ti, ka ti, katti, kåtti |
External links
- Norwegian Language Council
- Measuring the "distance" between the Norwegian dialects
- En norsk dialektprøvedatabase på nettet, a Norwegian database of dialect samples.