North-West Frontier (military history)
Encyclopedia
The North-West Frontier was the most difficult area, from a military point of view, of the former British India in the Indian sub-continent. It remains the frontier of present-day Pakistan
, extending from the Pamir Knot in the north to the Koh-i-Malik Siah in the west, and separating the present-day North-West Frontier Province, or Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan Province, from Afghanistan
. In doing so the frontier divides the Pakhtun inhabitants of these provinces from their kinsmen in Afghanistan.
The two main gateways on the North West Frontier are the Khyber
and Bolan Pass
es. Since ancient times India has been invaded by these routes. With the expansion of the Russian Empire
into Central Asia
, stability of the Frontier and control of Afghanistan became cornerstones of defensive strategy for British India.
Much of the Frontier was conquered by Ranjit Singh
in the early 19th century, and then taken over by the East India Company
when it annexed the Punjab
in 1849.
Between 1849 and 1947 the military history of the frontier was a succession of punitive expeditions against offending Pashtun
(or Pathan) tribes, punctuated by three wars against Afghanistan. Many British officers who went on to distinguished command in the First
and Second World Wars
learnt their soldiering on the North-West Frontier, which they called the Grim.
, Kabul
, and Peshawar
, and, as Ahmad Shah Durrani
, was proclaimed Shah
of the Afghans
. He went on to conquer Herat
and Khorassan
, and established an empire from the Oxus to the Indus. On his death in 1773, the Afghan domain included Baluchistan, Sindh
, the Punjab
, and Kashmir
. Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Timur Shah Durrani
, whose rule of twenty years saw the Afghan tide begin to ebb. Timur left many sons but no heir, and the resultant internecine struggles for the throne lasted more than thirty years. During this period the Punjab was effectively ceded to its erstwhile governor Ranjit Singh
, Iran recovered Khorassan, and Sindh broke away.Sikh
forces from the Punjab crossed the Indus and seized the old Mughal
fort at Attock
. In 1819 Kashmir was lost, and west of the Indus Derajat
also. Four years later the winter capital at Peshawar came under attack.
In 1826 Dost Mohammad Khan
emerged as undisputed ruler in Kabul, and was there proclaimed Emir
. He defeated a further attempt to oust him by his exiled rival Shuja Shah Durrani
in 1833; however the Sikhs seized all of Peshawar the following year. In 1837 Dost Mohammad launched a counter-attack through the Khyber, but the Afghan force was halted at Jamrud Fort
. Dost Mohammad had sought assistance from the East India Company
against the resurgent Punjab, but was rebuffed. So Dost Mohammad turned to Imperial Russia
for help.
(Punjabi: ਮਹਾਰਾਜਾ ਰਣਜੀਤ ਸਿੰਘ ), also called "Sher-e-Punjab" ("The Lion of the Punjab") (1780–1839) was a Sikh ruler of the sovereign country of Punjab and the Sikh Empire. His Samadhi is located in Lahore, Pakistan.
He was a Sikh
born in 1780 in Gujranwala in modern day Pakistan
, into the Sansi-Sandhawalia family. At the time much of the Punjab region
was ruled by the Sikhs, who had divided the territory among factions known as misls. Ranjit Singh's father Maha Singh was the commander of the Sukerchakia misl and controlled a territory in west Punjab based around his headquarters at Gujranwala. Ranjit Singh succeeded his father at the young age of 12. After several campaigns, his rivals accepted him as their leader, and he united the Sikh factions into one state and he took the title of Maharaja on April 12, 1801 (to coincide with Baisakhi day), with Lahore having served as his capital from 1799. In 1802 he took the holy city of Amritsar.
He then spent the following years fighting the Afghans, driving them out of western Punjab, taking opportunity of the Afghans being embroiled in civil war. The deposed Afghan king Shah Shuja
rallied a significant number of tribes and received British backing in the form of the Sikh army against the Barakzai
king Dost Muhammad. The civil war in Afghanistan coupled with a British backed assault meant that the Sikhs could virtually walk into Peshawar. They managed to capture Pashtun territory including Peshawar which was under direct British supervision and control. In a historical perspective, this event was very important. For more than a thousand years invaders had come down from the Khyber pass and ruled eastern lands. The British subsequently overthrew the empire after key Sikh leaders were killed in the battle of Jamrud. Signs of the Pashtuns reuniting and launching an attack towards Punjab became evident and the British were forced to act quickly in a bid to gain control of Kabul.
, Bihar
, and Orissa
. Dominance was gained at the expense of its French equivalent, the Compagnie des Indes. Britain and France were at war
, and the Franco-Persian alliance
of 1807, followed the same year by the Franco-Russian Treaty of Tilsit, alerted the HEIC to the external threat posed from the north-west.
By 1819 only Sindh
and the Sikh Empire remained outside the Company's control. Napolean was vanquished, but the Empire of the Tsars
had begun to expand south and east. Russian influence grew likewise, and by the early 1830s Qajar Irān
was within the Tsar's sphere. Attempts by Irān to recover Herat
in 1834, and again in 1837, raised the spectre of Russian armies on the road to Kandahar
, whence direct access to India through the Khojak
and Bolan
passes.
Meanwhile the conflict between Afghanistan and the Punjab focused on the Khyber route
. Dost Mohammad appealed to the HEIC for aid in recovering Peshawar, but the Company could not help him without alienating its treaty ally Ranjit Singh. When Dost Mohammad redirected his appeal to Russia, the Governor-General
Lord Auckland
resolved to depose Dost Mohammad, and replace him with Shuja Shah Durrani. Restored to his throne in Kabul, the exiled former ruler would accept the Sikh gains west of the Indus, and the Company controlling his foreign policy. The agreement was formalised with the Treaty of Simla signed in June 1838 between Shah Shuja, the HEIC, and Ranjit Singh.
, several expeditions were undertaken against almost every tribe along the whole of the North-West Frontier.
When the Sepoy Rebellion broke out Amir Dost Mohammad Khan
came under internal pressure to seize the advantage and attack India. However he stood by his treaty obligations. This allowed Indian troops on the frontier to deploy to Delhi
and deal with the revolt centered there.
received a Russian mission in Kabul, but refused to accept one from India. The following year Sher Ali signed a treaty with Russia. India sent a mission anyway, but the mission and its armed escort were denied passage through the Khyber Pass. India threatened to invade, and when no apology was forthcoming, did so. Sher Ali died while fleeing to Russian territory, and his son Yakub
succeeded him. On May 26, 1879, Amir Yakub signed the Treaty of Gandamak
, whereby Afghanistan surrendered its foreign policy to India, which in turn promised protection from aggression. Afghanistan ceded some territory and accepted a British Resident in Kabul.
In September 1879, some six weeks after establishing his residency, Sir Louis Cavagnari
and his escort were murdered. Hostilities promptly resumed. Yakub's army was defeated in September 1880, and his throne was offered to, and accepted by, Abdur Rahman
, who agreed to surrender all claims on the Khyber, the Kurram
, Sibi
, and Pishin
.
to the Western Front
, East Africa
, Gallipoli, Mesopotamia
, Sinai and Palestine
. India was thus vulnerable to hostile attention from Afghanistan. A Turco-German mission arrived in Kabul
in October 1915 with obvious strategic purpose. However, Amir Habibulla abided by his treaty obligations and maintained Afghanistan's neutrality, in the face of internal opposition from factions keen to side with the Ottoman Sultan.
Hostilities on the frontier remained local.
His successor Amanullah
pursued a similar policy by different means. With India's Army de-mobilising, and its Government preoccupied with violent unrest in western India, Amanullah sent his troops across the Frontier in early May. At the end of the month he sought an armistice, which was granted on June 3. By the Treaty of Rawalpindi
signed in August, Afghanistan gained control of its foreign affairs, and in turn, recognised the Durand Line
as its border with India.
The short-lived war had long-term consequences in Waziristan
, where tribesmen rallied to Amanullah's cause. The western militia posts
were abandoned. Many of the militia deserted, taking their modern weapons and joining their fellow tribesmen in attacking the remaining posts. As a result, the Indian Army's Waziristan Force was fully engaged in re-establishing the posts and restoring the lines of communication from November until May 1920. The western base at Wana
was finally reoccupied in December 1920.
The long-term plan for control of the district entailed building metalled roads along the lines of communication to a new central base to be established at Razmak
. In 1921 work began on the southern road up the Tank Zam from Jandola
, under the protection of the Waziristan Force. The following year work on the northern road from the Tochi began at Idak, shielded by the Razmak Force advancing to its objective. The two roads met in 1924, linking North
and South Waziristan
, and enabling the Indian Army to reorganise both areas as one military district. The Waziristan and Razmak Field Forces then devolved into brigades based permanently at Manzai, Razmak, Gardai, and Bannu
.
The following year the few tribal sections in South Waziristan remaining openly hostile were subdued by aircraft alone. For this operation the No. 2 (Indian) Wing of the RAF under Wing Commander Pink was based at Tank
and Miranshah
.
Aircraft comprising the Wana Patrol maintained regular weekly contact with the posts at Wana and Tanai until 1929, when the road from Sarwekai was completed, and the Manzai brigade relocated to Wana.
and indeed most of the Frontier remained relatively calm and the British were able to divert most of their military effort to more important theatres. There were, however, brief periods of trouble on the frontier, which required the British to continue to maintain a military presence in the region, although for the main they were able to employ mainly garrison or rear-area troops during this time, thus allowing them to free up front-line units for active service elsewhere.
In 1944, a British committee under Lieutenant-General Sir Francis Tucker
was set up to review future policy for the region. As part of its findings, it recommended a return to the Curzon Plan, which advocated the withdrawal of all regular forces from tribal territory into outposts, or cantonments, along the administrative border from where they could keep an eye on things. The unadministered districts would then once again become the responsibility of the local militias.
. Based upon the recommendations of the Tucker committee in 1944 (see above), the newly formed Pakistani government decided to move away from the previous British policy of 'forward defence' in the North-West Frontier region and ordered the withdrawal of forces from Waziristan, as it was felt that the presence of a regular military force in the region was provoking tensions with the local tribesmen. This withdrawal began on December 6, 1947 and was successfully completed by the end of the month under the codename Operation Curzon.
recorded in his autobiography that Pathan
women in the North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955) of British India during the Anglo-Afghan War
s would castrate non Muslim soldiers who were captured, like British and Sikhs. They also used an execution method involving urine, Pathan women urinated into prisoner's mouths. Captured British soldiers were spread out on the and fastened with restraints to the ground, then a stick, or a piece of wood was used to keep their mouth open to prevent swallowing. Pathan women then squatted and urinated directly into the mouth of the man until he drowned in the urine, taking turns one at a time. This method of execution was reported to have been practiced specifically by the women of the Afridi
tribe of the Pashtuns.
of cavalry
and infantry
, raised at Peshawar in 1846 by Lt. Harry Lumsden
, and later based at Hoti Mardan
. Originally one troop
of cavalry and two companies
of infantry, the cavalry component later expanded to 2½ squadrons
, and the infantry to 4½ companies. Two further infantry battalions were raised in 1917.
From its inception the corps was clothed in native style, with smock, baggy trousers and turban of home-spun cotton, and jerkin of sheepskin. The cotton was dyed grey with a derivative of a dwarf palm known as mazari, while the leather was dyed khaki
with mulberry
juice. Thus was military dress first colored khaki for its camouflage
effect, and the Guides were the first troops to wear it. The drab color is well suited to the barren rocky terrain of the North-West Frontier, and all but one of the other Punjab frontier units soon followed the Guides example.
In 1848 the Second Sikh War broke out and the corps won its first battle honors; 'MOOLTAN', 'GOOJERAT', and 'PUNJAUB'. Thereafter the Guides were engaged in most frontier affairs, and from 1857 the corps was included in the Punjab Irregular Force
, and subsequently in the Punjab Frontier Force.
That same year the Corps of Guides was ordered to Delhi, covering the 930 km from Mardan in twenty-two days and famously going into action on arrival. They were duly honored with DELHI 1857
.
At the beginning of the Second Afghan War in 1878, the Guides Infantry, together with the 1st Sikh Infantry, PFF, took part in forcing the Khyber
, and were prominent in seizing the fortress of Ali Masjid
. For this and subsequent efforts the Corps of Guides was awarded the battle honors ALI MASJID
, KABUL 1879, and AFGHANISTAN 1878-80.
The last decade of the 19th century saw the Guides employed in the Chitral campaign
of 1895, and the Punjab Frontier Revolt of 1897-8. Thus was the corps awarded the battle honors 'CHITRAL', 'MALAKAND'
, and 'PUNJAB FRONTIER'.
The reforms of 1903 gave to the Queen's Own Corps of Guides (Lumsden's) a subsidiary title in the form of its founders name, but left it numberless. In 1911 the corps took up Frontier Force as its first subsidiary title.
During the First World War the cavalry branch of the Corps was deployed overseas to Mesopotamia
, but not before winning a further honor in its own territory; 'N.W. FRONTIER INDIA 1915'.
In 1922 the separation became permanent, when the mounted branch was redesignated the 10th Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides Cavalry (Frontier Force)
, and the infantry was amalgamated as the 5th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment
(Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides).
Horse, the force under Capt. John Jacob was part of the Bombay Army
.
in 1839 by Capt. Ward.
The regiment earned its first battle honour during the Operations in Scinde 1839-42, when it was awarded the unique distinction 'CUTCHEE'.
For the subsequent Scinde Campaign of 1843 it was awarded 'MEEANEE'
and 'HYDERABAD'.
A second regiment was raised at Hyderabad in 1846 by Capt. J. Jacob.
During the Second Sikh War both the 1st and 2nd Irregular Horse earned further distinction with 'MOOLTAN', 'GOOJERAT', and 'PUNJAUB'.
A third regiment was raised in 1857, and in 1860 the regiments were designated simply Scinde Horse.
The 1st Scinde Horse was deployed to suppress the Sepoy Revolt of 1857-8, and was duly awarded CENTRAL INDIA.
All three regiments were rewarded for their part in the Second Afghan War:-
Its hard-won honors notwithstanding, the third regiment was disbanded in 1882.
The 1st and 2nd Regiments joined the Bombay line in 1885 as the 5th and 6th Bombay Cavalry respectively.
In the reformed Indian Army in 1903 they were likewise redesignated 35th Scinde Horse and 36th Jacob's Horse
.
In 1861 the rifles joined the Bombay line as the 30th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry.
The regiment was honored for its part in the Second Afghan War with AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
Designated 130th Baluchis
in 1903, the subsidiary title was restored in 1910.
.
Converted to a mountain
battery the following year, the company was accordingly redesignated No. 2 Bombay Mountain Battery.
For its part in the Second Afghan War the battery was awarded the honor AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
Later re-numbered as No. 6 (Bombay) Mountain Battery, and then briefly renamed the Jullundur Mountain Battery, the unit took its place in the reformed Indian Army of 1903 as 26th Jacob's Mountain Battery
.
The brigade was formed by Lt. Col. Henry Montgomery Lawrence
from four regiments of infantry raised in 1846 from veterans of the Sikh
forces disbanded after the First Anglo-Sikh War
:-
The brigades Frontier designation was discontinued in 1847, and the four regiments became Sikh Local Infantry.
For their part in the Second Sikh War the 1st and 2nd (or Hill) regiments were awarded the battle honor 'PUNJAUB'.
regiments disbanded after the Second Anglo-Sikh War
, and designated Punjab Infantry:-
. The units of the force came to be known collectively from its initials as Piffers.
While the 3rd and 4th regiments remained on the frontier, the 1st, 2nd, and 5th were employed in suppressing the Sepoy Revolt, and later rewarded with the battle honors DELHI 1857, and LUCKNOW.
The Horse Light Field Batteries were generally known as Punjab Light Field Batteries.
Later the force gained two further batteries:-
The six Punjab Infantry regiments were simply redesignated Infantry, Punjab Irregular Force.
The 4th Regiment of Sikh Infantry served in the Second Burma War
, winning the honor PEGU, and then marched 900 km from Abbottabad in thirty days to help suppress the revolt in Delhi, and like the Guides going into action on arrival. There it won also DELHI 1857. The other Sikh Infantry regiments remained in the Punjab.
Leaving the 3rd, 5th, & 6th Punjab Infantry Regiments to guard the frontier, the 1st, 2nd, and 4th were sent to put down the revolt in Delhi
. There they earned the honor DELHI 1857. The 2nd and 4th regiments were also rewarded with LUCKNOW.
From 1861 the force included a 7th Infantry Regiment, formed from the Hazara Gurkha
Battalion, which later that year joined the Gurkha Line as the 5th Gurkha Regiment.
was renamed the Punjab Frontier Force, and the constituent units were redesignated accordingly.
During peacetime the Force was under the direct control of the Lt.-Governor of the Punjab, but in war it came under the Commander-in-Chief, India
.
After the three Presidency armies
, it was the most important military force at the Governor-General
's disposal. Deployed
and engaged
in numerous border expeditions
, it became the most experienced body of fighting troops in India.
Most of the force saw action during the Second Afghan War.
The designation Punjab Frontier Force was dropped in 1901, but with the Kitchener Reforms
two years later, the former distinction was restored to the newly re-numbered regiments in the form of the subsidiary title Frontier Force.
Four of the regiments were honored for service in the Second Afghan War:-
The 4th regiment served on the frontier before being disbanded in 1882.
In 1903 the four remaining regiments were brought into the new Indian Army line by adding twenty to their original numbers:-
in 1865.
In 1876 the three Punjab Light Field Batteries were reduced to form two further mountain batteries, and the four were then renumbered according to their relative precedence, and designated Punjab Mountain Batteries, Punjab Frontier Force.
The former Garrison Company was also renumbered in the same sequence to become the No. 5 Garrison Battery, Punjab Frontier Force.
All four mountain batteries were honored for their part in the Second Afghan War:-
In 1895 the Derajat and Hazara Mountain Batteries were part of the relief expedition that was rewarded with the honor CHITRAL
.
The Frontier Revolt of 1897-8 saw the Kohat and Derajat batteries in action again, earning the honors TIRAH
and PUNJAB FRONTIER.
In 1901 the battery numbers were dropped, and they known by name only. Two years later the four mountain batteries were re-numbered from twenty-one, and the former Piffer batteries were thus:-
The six former Punjab Infantry regiments were officially redesignated Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force, but the earlier style lingered and was restored in 1901.
Although never designated as such, the 5th Gurkha Regiment was brigaded with the force in practice.
All but two of the infantry regiments took the field in the Second Afghan War, and their subsequent awards were:-
Spending cuts after the war resulted in the disbandment of the 3rd Punjab Infantry in 1882.
Spared the same fate, the 4th Sikh Infantry was employed in the expedition of 1895 earning the honor CHITRAL
.
The Frontier Revolt of 1897-8 saw the 3rd Sikh and 2nd Punjab Infantries employed in the Tirah Campaign
, earning them the honors TIRAH and PUNJAB FRONTIER. The 5th Gurkha Rifles was also awarded PUNJAB FRONTIER.
In 1903 the four Sikh Infantry regiments were brought into the new Indian Army Line by adding fifty to their original numbers:-
The five remaining regiments of Punjab Infantry were consecutively renumbered in the same sequence to become:-
The 5th Gurkha Rifles (Frontier Force) took on the subsidiary title denoting their origin.
Like many things British, the development of the units of Scouts into the Frontier Corps was organic, unplanned and initially unsystematic. It began, in the British manner, as an improvisation to meet a need; it was maintained because it guaranteed certain unique skills at an acceptable price (the great Empire may have vaunted its 'pomp and circumstance' to wow the impressionable, but behind the scenes the deciding factor was often simply the acceptability or otherwise to HM Treasury) and only then was the principle regularised, standardised and systemised (cf. the development of the Frontier Force, from irregulars to a corps d'elite).
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
, extending from the Pamir Knot in the north to the Koh-i-Malik Siah in the west, and separating the present-day North-West Frontier Province, or Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan Province, from Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
. In doing so the frontier divides the Pakhtun inhabitants of these provinces from their kinsmen in Afghanistan.
The two main gateways on the North West Frontier are the Khyber
Khyber Pass
The Khyber Pass, is a mountain pass linking Pakistan and Afghanistan.The Pass was an integral part of the ancient Silk Road. It is mentioned in the Bible as the "Pesh Habor," and it is one of the oldest known passes in the world....
and Bolan Pass
Bolan Pass
The Bolan Pass is a mountain pass through the Toba Kakar Range of Balochistan province in western Pakistan, 120 kilometres from the Afghanistan border....
es. Since ancient times India has been invaded by these routes. With the expansion of the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
into Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
, stability of the Frontier and control of Afghanistan became cornerstones of defensive strategy for British India.
Much of the Frontier was conquered by Ranjit Singh
Ranjit Singh
Maharaja Ranjit Singh Ji was the first Maharaja of the Sikh Empire.-Early life:...
in the early 19th century, and then taken over by the East India Company
East India Company
The East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
when it annexed the Punjab
Punjab (British India)
Punjab was a province of British India, it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British rule. With the end of British rule in 1947 the province was split between West Punjab, which went to Pakistan, and East Punjab, which went to India...
in 1849.
Between 1849 and 1947 the military history of the frontier was a succession of punitive expeditions against offending Pashtun
Pashtun people
Pashtuns or Pathans , also known as ethnic Afghans , are an Eastern Iranic ethnic group with populations primarily between the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and the Indus River in Pakistan...
(or Pathan) tribes, punctuated by three wars against Afghanistan. Many British officers who went on to distinguished command in the First
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
and Second World Wars
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
learnt their soldiering on the North-West Frontier, which they called the Grim.
Afghanistan
In 1747 when Ahmad Khān Abdālī seized control of KandaharKandahar
Kandahar is the second largest city in Afghanistan, with a population of about 512,200 as of 2011. It is the capital of Kandahar Province, located in the south of the country at about 1,005 m above sea level...
, Kabul
Kabul
Kabul , spelt Caubul in some classic literatures, is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. It is also the capital of the Kabul Province, located in the eastern section of Afghanistan...
, and Peshawar
Peshawar
Peshawar is the capital of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and the administrative center and central economic hub for the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan....
, and, as Ahmad Shah Durrani
Ahmad Shah Durrani
Ahmad Shah Durrani , also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī and born as Ahmad Khān, was the founder of the Durrani Empire in 1747 and is regarded by many to be the founder of the modern state of Afghanistan.Ahmad Khan enlisted as a young soldier in the military of the Afsharid kingdom and quickly rose...
, was proclaimed Shah
Shah
Shāh is the title of the ruler of certain Southwest Asian and Central Asian countries, especially Persia , and derives from the Persian word shah, meaning "king".-History:...
of the Afghans
Pashtun people
Pashtuns or Pathans , also known as ethnic Afghans , are an Eastern Iranic ethnic group with populations primarily between the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and the Indus River in Pakistan...
. He went on to conquer Herat
Herat
Herāt is the capital of Herat province in Afghanistan. It is the third largest city of Afghanistan, with a population of about 397,456 as of 2006. It is situated in the valley of the Hari River, which flows from the mountains of central Afghanistan to the Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan...
and Khorassan
Greater Khorasan
Greater Khorasan or Ancient Khorasan is a historical region of Greater Iran mentioned in sources from Sassanid and Islamic eras which "frequently" had a denotation wider than current three provinces of Khorasan in Iran...
, and established an empire from the Oxus to the Indus. On his death in 1773, the Afghan domain included Baluchistan, Sindh
Sindh
Sindh historically referred to as Ba'ab-ul-Islam , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the "Mehran". Though Muslims form the largest religious group in Sindh, a good number of Christians, Zoroastrians and Hindus can...
, the Punjab
Punjab region
The Punjab , also spelled Panjab |water]]s"), is a geographical region straddling the border between Pakistan and India which includes Punjab province in Pakistan and the states of the Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh and some northern parts of the National Capital Territory of Delhi...
, and Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range...
. Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Timur Shah Durrani
Timur Shah Durrani
Timur Shah Durrani , was the second ruler of the Durrani Empire from October 16, 1772, until his death in 1793. An ethnic Pashtun, he was the second and eldest son of Ahmad Shah Durrani.- Early life :...
, whose rule of twenty years saw the Afghan tide begin to ebb. Timur left many sons but no heir, and the resultant internecine struggles for the throne lasted more than thirty years. During this period the Punjab was effectively ceded to its erstwhile governor Ranjit Singh
Ranjit Singh
Maharaja Ranjit Singh Ji was the first Maharaja of the Sikh Empire.-Early life:...
, Iran recovered Khorassan, and Sindh broke away.Sikh
Sikh
A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism. It primarily originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region of South Asia. The term "Sikh" has its origin in Sanskrit term शिष्य , meaning "disciple, student" or शिक्ष , meaning "instruction"...
forces from the Punjab crossed the Indus and seized the old Mughal
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
fort at Attock
Attock
Attock is a city located in the northern border of the Punjab province of Pakistan and the headquarters of Attock District...
. In 1819 Kashmir was lost, and west of the Indus Derajat
Derajat
Derajat meaning, 'Land of the Jats' or "Jat Land'. Derajat is a cultural region of central Pakistan, located in the region where the provinces of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab meet. Derajat is bound by the Indus River to the east and the mountains to the west...
also. Four years later the winter capital at Peshawar came under attack.
In 1826 Dost Mohammad Khan
Dost Mohammad Khan
Dost Mohammad Khan was the Emir of Afghanistan between 1826 and 1863. He first ruled from 1826 to 1839 and then from 1843 to 1863. He was the 11th son of Sardar Pāyendah Khan who was killed by Zaman Shah Durrani in 1799...
emerged as undisputed ruler in Kabul, and was there proclaimed Emir
Emir
Emir , meaning "commander", "general", or "prince"; also transliterated as Amir, Aamir or Ameer) is a title of high office, used throughout the Muslim world...
. He defeated a further attempt to oust him by his exiled rival Shuja Shah Durrani
Shuja Shah Durrani
Shuja Shah Durrani was ruler of the Durrani Empire from 1803 to 1809. He then ruled from 1839 until his death in 1842. Shuja Shah was of the Sadozai line of the Abdali group of Pashtuns...
in 1833; however the Sikhs seized all of Peshawar the following year. In 1837 Dost Mohammad launched a counter-attack through the Khyber, but the Afghan force was halted at Jamrud Fort
Jamrud Fort
Located at the entrance to the Khyber Pass, Jamrud Fort was built by the Sikhs in 1823.In 1837, it was here that the Afghans attacked the Sikhs during the Battle of Jamrud and Sardar Hari Singh Nalwa, the Sikh Commander, was killed. But Sikhs won the war....
. Dost Mohammad had sought assistance from the East India Company
East India Company
The East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
against the resurgent Punjab, but was rebuffed. So Dost Mohammad turned to Imperial Russia
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
for help.
Sikh Empire (1799–1849)
Maharaja Ranjit SinghRanjit Singh
Maharaja Ranjit Singh Ji was the first Maharaja of the Sikh Empire.-Early life:...
(Punjabi: ਮਹਾਰਾਜਾ ਰਣਜੀਤ ਸਿੰਘ ), also called "Sher-e-Punjab" ("The Lion of the Punjab") (1780–1839) was a Sikh ruler of the sovereign country of Punjab and the Sikh Empire. His Samadhi is located in Lahore, Pakistan.
He was a Sikh
Sikh
A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism. It primarily originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region of South Asia. The term "Sikh" has its origin in Sanskrit term शिष्य , meaning "disciple, student" or शिक्ष , meaning "instruction"...
born in 1780 in Gujranwala in modern day Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
, into the Sansi-Sandhawalia family. At the time much of the Punjab region
Punjab region
The Punjab , also spelled Panjab |water]]s"), is a geographical region straddling the border between Pakistan and India which includes Punjab province in Pakistan and the states of the Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh and some northern parts of the National Capital Territory of Delhi...
was ruled by the Sikhs, who had divided the territory among factions known as misls. Ranjit Singh's father Maha Singh was the commander of the Sukerchakia misl and controlled a territory in west Punjab based around his headquarters at Gujranwala. Ranjit Singh succeeded his father at the young age of 12. After several campaigns, his rivals accepted him as their leader, and he united the Sikh factions into one state and he took the title of Maharaja on April 12, 1801 (to coincide with Baisakhi day), with Lahore having served as his capital from 1799. In 1802 he took the holy city of Amritsar.
He then spent the following years fighting the Afghans, driving them out of western Punjab, taking opportunity of the Afghans being embroiled in civil war. The deposed Afghan king Shah Shuja
Shah Shuja
Shāh Shujā was the second son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and empress Mumtaz Mahal.-Governor of Bengal:Emperor Shah Jahan appointed Shah Shuja as the Subahdar or governor of Bengal in 1639. In 1642, Shuja was also given the charge of the province of Orissa. He ruled the provinces for more...
rallied a significant number of tribes and received British backing in the form of the Sikh army against the Barakzai
Barakzai
- History :Barakzai is a common ethnic name among the Pashtuns of Afghanistan/Pakistan and it means . Barakzai is also a Pashtun tribe in Pakistan, and more predominantly, in Afghanistan...
king Dost Muhammad. The civil war in Afghanistan coupled with a British backed assault meant that the Sikhs could virtually walk into Peshawar. They managed to capture Pashtun territory including Peshawar which was under direct British supervision and control. In a historical perspective, this event was very important. For more than a thousand years invaders had come down from the Khyber pass and ruled eastern lands. The British subsequently overthrew the empire after key Sikh leaders were killed in the battle of Jamrud. Signs of the Pashtuns reuniting and launching an attack towards Punjab became evident and the British were forced to act quickly in a bid to gain control of Kabul.
British East India Company
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Honourable East India Company controlled southern India, BengalBengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
, Bihar
Bihar
Bihar is a state in eastern India. It is the 12th largest state in terms of geographical size at and 3rd largest by population. Almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, which is the highest proportion in India....
, and Orissa
Orissa
Orissa , officially Odisha since Nov 2011, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BC. The modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April...
. Dominance was gained at the expense of its French equivalent, the Compagnie des Indes. Britain and France were at war
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
, and the Franco-Persian alliance
Franco-Persian alliance
A Franco-Persian alliance was formed for a short period between the French Empire of Napoleon I and the Persian Empire of Fath Ali Shah against Russia and Great Britain between 1807 to 1809. The alliance was part of a grand Napoleonic scheme to cross the Middle East in order to attack British India...
of 1807, followed the same year by the Franco-Russian Treaty of Tilsit, alerted the HEIC to the external threat posed from the north-west.
By 1819 only Sindh
Sindh
Sindh historically referred to as Ba'ab-ul-Islam , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the "Mehran". Though Muslims form the largest religious group in Sindh, a good number of Christians, Zoroastrians and Hindus can...
and the Sikh Empire remained outside the Company's control. Napolean was vanquished, but the Empire of the Tsars
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
had begun to expand south and east. Russian influence grew likewise, and by the early 1830s Qajar Irān
Qajar dynasty
The Qajar dynasty was an Iranian royal family of Turkic descent who ruled Persia from 1785 to 1925....
was within the Tsar's sphere. Attempts by Irān to recover Herat
Herat
Herāt is the capital of Herat province in Afghanistan. It is the third largest city of Afghanistan, with a population of about 397,456 as of 2006. It is situated in the valley of the Hari River, which flows from the mountains of central Afghanistan to the Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan...
in 1834, and again in 1837, raised the spectre of Russian armies on the road to Kandahar
Kandahar
Kandahar is the second largest city in Afghanistan, with a population of about 512,200 as of 2011. It is the capital of Kandahar Province, located in the south of the country at about 1,005 m above sea level...
, whence direct access to India through the Khojak
Khojak Pass
Khojak Pass connects Qila Abdullah with Chaman in the province of Baluchistan, Pakistan.* Khojak Pass is between Quetta and Chaman...
and Bolan
Bolan Pass
The Bolan Pass is a mountain pass through the Toba Kakar Range of Balochistan province in western Pakistan, 120 kilometres from the Afghanistan border....
passes.
Meanwhile the conflict between Afghanistan and the Punjab focused on the Khyber route
Khyber Pass
The Khyber Pass, is a mountain pass linking Pakistan and Afghanistan.The Pass was an integral part of the ancient Silk Road. It is mentioned in the Bible as the "Pesh Habor," and it is one of the oldest known passes in the world....
. Dost Mohammad appealed to the HEIC for aid in recovering Peshawar, but the Company could not help him without alienating its treaty ally Ranjit Singh. When Dost Mohammad redirected his appeal to Russia, the Governor-General
Governor-General of India
The Governor-General of India was the head of the British administration in India, and later, after Indian independence, the representative of the monarch and de facto head of state. The office was created in 1773, with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William...
Lord Auckland
George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland
George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland, GCB, PC was a British Whig politician and colonial administrator. He was thrice First Lord of the Admiralty and also served as Governor-General of India between 1836 and 1842....
resolved to depose Dost Mohammad, and replace him with Shuja Shah Durrani. Restored to his throne in Kabul, the exiled former ruler would accept the Sikh gains west of the Indus, and the Company controlling his foreign policy. The agreement was formalised with the Treaty of Simla signed in June 1838 between Shah Shuja, the HEIC, and Ranjit Singh.
1800-1837 (Afghan-Sikh Wars)
- Battle of AttockBattle of AttockThe Battle of Attock took place on 13 July 1813 between the Sikh Empire and the Durrani Empire. The battle was the first significant Sikh victory over the Durranis.- Background :...
(1813) - Battle of MultanBattle of MultanThe Battle of Multan was a battle between a Vizier of the Durrani Empire and the Sikh Empire that started in March 1818 and ended on 2 June 1818.- Background :...
(1818) - Battle of ShopianBattle of ShopianThe Battle of Shopian took place on 3 July 1819 between an expeditionary force from the Sikh Empire and Jabbar Khan, the governor of the Durrani Empire province of Kashmir...
(1819) - Battle of NowsheraBattle of NowsheraThe Battle of Nowshera was fought in March 1823 between the forces of Pashtun tribesmen with support from Muhammad Azem Khan Barakzai, Durrani governor against the Army of Maharaja Ranjit Singh...
(1823) - Battle of Jamrud (1837)
1838-48 (First Afghan War to Second Sikh War)
- First Afghan War (1838–1842)
- Scinde Campaign (1843)
- First Sikh War (1845-6)
- Second Sikh War (1848-9)
1849-58 (Second Sikh War to Sepoy Revolt)
In the period following the annexation of the Punjab in 1849 until the Indian Rebellion of 1857Indian Rebellion of 1857
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of sepoys of the British East India Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the town of Meerut, and soon escalated into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to...
, several expeditions were undertaken against almost every tribe along the whole of the North-West Frontier.
When the Sepoy Rebellion broke out Amir Dost Mohammad Khan
Dost Mohammad Khan
Dost Mohammad Khan was the Emir of Afghanistan between 1826 and 1863. He first ruled from 1826 to 1839 and then from 1843 to 1863. He was the 11th son of Sardar Pāyendah Khan who was killed by Zaman Shah Durrani in 1799...
came under internal pressure to seize the advantage and attack India. However he stood by his treaty obligations. This allowed Indian troops on the frontier to deploy to Delhi
Delhi
Delhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
and deal with the revolt centered there.
- Operations against the Baizai (1849)
- Operations in the Kohat Pass (1850)
- Mohmand Expeditions (1851–2)
- Ranizai Expedition (1852)
- First Black Mountain Expedition (1852)
- Shirani Expedition (1853)
- Afridi Expedition (1853)
- Aka Khel Expedition (1854)
- Operations against the Orakzais (1855)
- Miranzai Valley Expeditions (1855–6)
- Bozdar Expedition (1857)
- Expedition against the Hindustani Fanatics (1857-8).
- Sepoy Rebellion (1857–8) (Indian Mutiny)
1859–1878 (Sepoy Revolt to Second Afghan War)
- Kabul Khel Expedition (1859)
- Mahsud Expedition (1860)
- Umbeyla CampaignUmbeyla CampaignThe Umbeyla Campaign was one of numerous expeditions led by British forces in the North-West Frontier Province; this campaign was against local Hindustani Pashtuns and Bunerwals of British India. The local Pashtuns were vehemently opposed to British colonial rule and frequently attacked British...
(1863) - Operations at Shabkadar (1863–4)
- Second Black Mountain Expedition (1868)
- Bazotee Expedition (1868)
- Operations in the Tochi Valley (1872)
- Jowaki Expedition (1877–8)
- Operations against the Utman Khel (1878)
1878–1898 (Second Afghan War to Frontier Rebellion)
In 1877, Amir Sher AliSher Ali Khan
Sher Ali Khan was Amir of Afghanistan from 1863 to 1866 and from 1868 until his death in 1879. He was the third son of Dost Mohammed Khan, founder of the Barakzai Dynasty in Afghanistan....
received a Russian mission in Kabul, but refused to accept one from India. The following year Sher Ali signed a treaty with Russia. India sent a mission anyway, but the mission and its armed escort were denied passage through the Khyber Pass. India threatened to invade, and when no apology was forthcoming, did so. Sher Ali died while fleeing to Russian territory, and his son Yakub
Mohammad Yaqub Khan
Mohammad Yaqub Khan was Emir of Afghanistan from February 21 to October 12, 1879. He was the son of the previous ruler, Sher Ali Khan....
succeeded him. On May 26, 1879, Amir Yakub signed the Treaty of Gandamak
Treaty of Gandamak
The Treaty of Gandamak officially ended the first phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War. Afghanistan ceded various frontier areas to Britain to prevent invasion of further areas of the country....
, whereby Afghanistan surrendered its foreign policy to India, which in turn promised protection from aggression. Afghanistan ceded some territory and accepted a British Resident in Kabul.
In September 1879, some six weeks after establishing his residency, Sir Louis Cavagnari
Pierre Louis Napoleon Cavagnari
Sir Pierre Louis Napoleon Cavagnari KCB CSI , British military administrator, was the son of Count Louis Adolphus Cavagnari, of an old Italian family from Parma in the service of the Bonaparte family, by his marriage in 1837 with an Irish lady, Caroline Lyons-Montgomery...
and his escort were murdered. Hostilities promptly resumed. Yakub's army was defeated in September 1880, and his throne was offered to, and accepted by, Abdur Rahman
Abdur Rahman Khan
Abdur Rahman Khan was Emir of Afghanistan from 1880 to 1901.The third son of Mohammad Afzal Khan, and grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan, Abdur Rahman Khan was considered a strong ruler who re-established the writ of the Afghan government in Kabul after the disarray that followed the second...
, who agreed to surrender all claims on the Khyber, the Kurram
Kurram Valley
Kurram tribal agency is located in the FATA area of Pakistan. Geographically it covers Kurram Valley which is a beautiful valley in the northwestern part of Pakistan neighboring Afghanistan....
, Sibi
Sibi
Sibi is a city of Balochistan province of Pakistan. The city is located at 29°33'0N 67°52'60E at an altitude of 130 metres and is headquarters of the district and tehsil of the same name.. According to the 2001 census of Pakistan the population of Sibi is 52,100...
, and Pishin
Pishin District
Pishin was a part of Quetta Pishin district. In 1975 it was separated from Quetta for administrative reasons. It derives its name from the locality Pishin. Pishin is a modernised form of ‘Pushang’, which is old Persian for the Arabic Fushang. Myth attributes the origin of the name to a son of the...
.
- Second Afghan War (1878–1880)
- Zakka Khel Expeditions (1878–9)
- Operations against the Mohmands (1878–80)
- Operations against the Zaimukht (1878–9)
- Operations against the Marris (1880)
- Mahsud-Waziri Expedition (1881)
- Expedition to the Takht-i-Suliman (1883)
- Third Black Mountain Expedition (1888)
- Operations in the Zhob Valley (1890–1)
- Fourth Black Mountain Expedition (1891)
- Miranzai Expeditions (1891)
- Hunza-Nagar Expedition (1891)
- Mahsud Expedition (1894–5)
- Chitral expeditionChitral ExpeditionThe Chitral Expedition was a military expedition in 1895 sent by the British authorities to relieve the fort at Chitral which was under siege after a local coup.-Background to the conflict:Chitral was at the extreme north west of British India...
(1895) - Tochi Valley Expedition (1897)
- Siege of MalakandSiege of MalakandThe Siege of Malakand was the 26 July – 2 August 1897 siege of the British garrison in the Malakand region of colonial British India's North West Frontier Province...
(1897) - Operations of the Buner Field Force (1897-1898)
- Tirah CampaignTirah CampaignThe Tirah Campaign, often referred to in contemporary British accounts as the Tirah Expedition, was an Indian frontier war in 1897–98. Tirah is a mountainous tract of country.-Rebellion:...
(1897)
1898–1914 (Frontier Revolt to Great War)
- Mahsud Blockade (1900–02)
- Zakha Khel Expedition (1908)
- Mohmand Expedition (1908)
1914–1918 (First World War)
In support of the British war effort, the Indian Army deployed expeditionary forcesExpeditionary warfare
Expeditionary warfare is used to describe the organization of a state's military to fight abroad, especially when deployed to fight away from its established bases at home or abroad. Expeditionary forces were in part the antecedent of the modern concept of Rapid Deployment Forces...
to the Western Front
Western Front (World War I)
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne...
, East Africa
East African Campaign (World War I)
The East African Campaign was a series of battles and guerrilla actions which started in German East Africa and ultimately affected portions of Mozambique, Northern Rhodesia, British East Africa, Uganda, and the Belgian Congo. The campaign was effectively ended in November 1917...
, Gallipoli, Mesopotamia
Mesopotamian Campaign
The Mesopotamian campaign was a campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I fought between the Allies represented by the British Empire, mostly troops from the Indian Empire, and the Central Powers, mostly of the Ottoman Empire.- Background :...
, Sinai and Palestine
Sinai and Palestine Campaign
The Sinai and Palestine Campaigns took place in the Middle Eastern Theatre of World War I. A series of battles were fought between British Empire, German Empire and Ottoman Empire forces from 26 January 1915 to 31 October 1918, when the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ottoman Empire and...
. India was thus vulnerable to hostile attention from Afghanistan. A Turco-German mission arrived in Kabul
Kabul
Kabul , spelt Caubul in some classic literatures, is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. It is also the capital of the Kabul Province, located in the eastern section of Afghanistan...
in October 1915 with obvious strategic purpose. However, Amir Habibulla abided by his treaty obligations and maintained Afghanistan's neutrality, in the face of internal opposition from factions keen to side with the Ottoman Sultan.
Hostilities on the frontier remained local.
- Operations in the TochiOperations in the TochiThe Operations in the Tochi were carried out by Indian Army during World War I on the North West Frontier. The Tochi river flows East from the tribal territories, through North Waziristan, to join the Kurram and the Indus rivers...
(1914–15) - Operations against the Mohmands, Bunerwals and SwatisOperations against the Mohmands, Bunerwals and SwatisThe Operations against the Mohmands, Bunerwals and Swatis were carried out by the Indian Army during World War I. The first operation began at the start of 1915, with a raid by the Mohmand tribe near the Shabkadr Fort in Peshawar...
(1915) - Kalat Operations (1915-16)
- Mohmand BlockadeMohmand BlockadeThe Mohmand Blockade was a blockade formed by a series of blockhouses and barbed wire defences, along the Mohmand border on the North West Frontier by the Indian Army during World War I. The Blockade began after a number of Mohmand raids into Peshawar. The most important engagement occurred on 15...
(1916–17) - Operations against the Mahsuds (1917)
- Operations against the Marri and Khetran tribes (1918)
1919–1939 (between the wars)
Having upheld Afghan neutrality while India was engaged in the Great War, Habibulla sought full independence for Afghanistan in February 1919. Such a reward might have consolidated his rule, but later that month he was murdered.His successor Amanullah
Amanullah
Amanullah or Amanallah is a male Muslim given name meaning the trust or protection of God. It may refer to:*Amānullāh Khān , ruler of Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929*Amanullah Khan , several other people called Amanullah Khan...
pursued a similar policy by different means. With India's Army de-mobilising, and its Government preoccupied with violent unrest in western India, Amanullah sent his troops across the Frontier in early May. At the end of the month he sought an armistice, which was granted on June 3. By the Treaty of Rawalpindi
Treaty of Rawalpindi
The Treaty of Rawalpindi was an armistice made between the United Kingdom and Afghanistan during the Third Anglo-Afghan War...
signed in August, Afghanistan gained control of its foreign affairs, and in turn, recognised the Durand Line
Durand Line
The Durand Line refers to the porous international border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, which has divided the ethnic Pashtuns . This poorly marked line is approximately long...
as its border with India.
The short-lived war had long-term consequences in Waziristan
Waziristan
Waziristan is a mountainous region near the Northwest of Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering some 11,585 km² . The area is entirely populated by ethnic Pashtuns . The language spoken in the valley is Pashto/Pakhto...
, where tribesmen rallied to Amanullah's cause. The western militia posts
Military base
A military base is a facility directly owned and operated by or for the military or one of its branches that shelters military equipment and personnel, and facilitates training and operations. In general, a military base provides accommodations for one or more units, but it may also be used as a...
were abandoned. Many of the militia deserted, taking their modern weapons and joining their fellow tribesmen in attacking the remaining posts. As a result, the Indian Army's Waziristan Force was fully engaged in re-establishing the posts and restoring the lines of communication from November until May 1920. The western base at Wana
Wana
Wana is the largest town of South Waziristan Agency in Pakistan's FATA . It is the summer headquarters for the Agency's administration, Tank located in neighbouring Tank District being the winter HQ-Colonial history:...
was finally reoccupied in December 1920.
The long-term plan for control of the district entailed building metalled roads along the lines of communication to a new central base to be established at Razmak
Razmak
Razmak is one of the three sub-divisions of North Waziristan Agency in Pakistan, the other two being Miranshah and Mirali. Inhabitants are Uthmanzai Wazirs. Razmak is further sub-divided in three Tehsils. Tehsil being the lowest administrative unit in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of...
. In 1921 work began on the southern road up the Tank Zam from Jandola
Jandola
Jandola is a town in Frontier Region Tank, Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan....
, under the protection of the Waziristan Force. The following year work on the northern road from the Tochi began at Idak, shielded by the Razmak Force advancing to its objective. The two roads met in 1924, linking North
North Waziristan
North Waziristan is the northern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering . Waziristan comprises the area west and south-west of Peshawar between the Tochi river to the north and the Gomal river to the south, forming part of Pakistan's...
and South Waziristan
South Waziristan
South Waziristan is the southern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering some 11,585 km² . Waziristan comprises the area west and southwest of Peshawar between the Tochi River to the north and the Gomal River to the south, forming...
, and enabling the Indian Army to reorganise both areas as one military district. The Waziristan and Razmak Field Forces then devolved into brigades based permanently at Manzai, Razmak, Gardai, and Bannu
Bannu
Bannu is the principal city of the Bannu District in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. It is an important road junction and market city. Bannu is a very old city, founded in ancient times; however, the present location of the downtown Bannu was founded by Sir Herbert Edwardes in 1848,...
.
The following year the few tribal sections in South Waziristan remaining openly hostile were subdued by aircraft alone. For this operation the No. 2 (Indian) Wing of the RAF under Wing Commander Pink was based at Tank
Tank (Pakistan)
Tank or Tonk , is the capital city of Tank District, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The city's location near Waziristan.- Location :It is located at 32º13' N. and 70º32' E and is situated to the north-west of the Indus River and close to the Takht-i-Sulaiman Range. Tank is hot and humid in summer...
and Miranshah
Miranshah
Miranshah is the capital or headquarters of North Waziristan in Pakistan. It is the site of a town, which has s small airfield that was built by the British for World War II. The area in which Miranshah sits is extremely dangerous mainly due to Taliban activities and U.S. Drone...
.
Aircraft comprising the Wana Patrol maintained regular weekly contact with the posts at Wana and Tanai until 1929, when the road from Sarwekai was completed, and the Manzai brigade relocated to Wana.
- Punjab Rebellion, including the Amritsar Massacre (1919)
- Third Afghan War (1919)
- Operations in Waziristan (1919–20)Waziristan campaign 1919–1920The Waziristan campaign 1919–1920 was a military campaign conducted in Waziristan by British and Indian forces against the fiercely independent tribesmen that inhabited this region...
- Operations in Waziristan (1921-24)
- Pink's WarPink's WarPink's War was an air to ground bombardment and strafing carried out by the Royal Air Force, under the command of Wing Commander Richard Charles Montagu Pink, against the mountain strongholds of Mahsud tribesmen in South Waziristan in March and April 1925....
(1925) - Operation against the Mohmands (1927)
- Afridi and Red Shirt Rebellion (1930–1)
- Mohmand and Bajaur Operations (1933)
- Loe Agra Campaign (1935)
- Mohmand Campaign (1935)
- Operations in Waziristan (1936–9)
1940–1947 (Second World War to independence)
From 1940 to 1947, WaziristanWaziristan
Waziristan is a mountainous region near the Northwest of Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering some 11,585 km² . The area is entirely populated by ethnic Pashtuns . The language spoken in the valley is Pashto/Pakhto...
and indeed most of the Frontier remained relatively calm and the British were able to divert most of their military effort to more important theatres. There were, however, brief periods of trouble on the frontier, which required the British to continue to maintain a military presence in the region, although for the main they were able to employ mainly garrison or rear-area troops during this time, thus allowing them to free up front-line units for active service elsewhere.
Trained regular troops were desperately needed for the war against Germany and Japan.
Razmak, Wana and Bannu were garrisoned with half-trained units which suffered serious reverses, losing men, rifles, and light machine-guns.
In 1944, a British committee under Lieutenant-General Sir Francis Tucker
Francis Tucker
Francis Bagnal Kidger Tucker was a South African rally driver, who was the 1966 South African Rally Drivers Champion.....
was set up to review future policy for the region. As part of its findings, it recommended a return to the Curzon Plan, which advocated the withdrawal of all regular forces from tribal territory into outposts, or cantonments, along the administrative border from where they could keep an eye on things. The unadministered districts would then once again become the responsibility of the local militias.
Withdrawal
In 1947, following the granting of Indian independence from Britain and the subsequent partitioning of India into two separate states, the North-West Frontier region became a part of the newly formed nation of PakistanPakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
. Based upon the recommendations of the Tucker committee in 1944 (see above), the newly formed Pakistani government decided to move away from the previous British policy of 'forward defence' in the North-West Frontier region and ordered the withdrawal of forces from Waziristan, as it was felt that the presence of a regular military force in the region was provoking tensions with the local tribesmen. This withdrawal began on December 6, 1947 and was successfully completed by the end of the month under the codename Operation Curzon.
Treatment of POWs
The British officer John MastersJohn Masters
Lieutenant Colonel John Masters, DSO was an English officer in the British Indian Army and novelist. His works are noted for their treatment of the British Empire in India.-Life:...
recorded in his autobiography that Pathan
Pashtun people
Pashtuns or Pathans , also known as ethnic Afghans , are an Eastern Iranic ethnic group with populations primarily between the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and the Indus River in Pakistan...
women in the North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955) of British India during the Anglo-Afghan War
Anglo-Afghan War
Anglo-Afghan War may refer to:*First Anglo-Afghan War *Second Anglo-Afghan War *Third Anglo-Afghan War -See also:* European influence in Afghanistan where the backdrop for the three wars mentioned above are discussed....
s would castrate non Muslim soldiers who were captured, like British and Sikhs. They also used an execution method involving urine, Pathan women urinated into prisoner's mouths. Captured British soldiers were spread out on the and fastened with restraints to the ground, then a stick, or a piece of wood was used to keep their mouth open to prevent swallowing. Pathan women then squatted and urinated directly into the mouth of the man until he drowned in the urine, taking turns one at a time. This method of execution was reported to have been practiced specifically by the women of the Afridi
Afridi
Afridi of rough hilly area in the eastern Safed Koh range, west of the Peshawar Valley and east of Torkham, and Maidan in Tirah, which can be accessed by the Kajurhi plains and the valleys of Bara and Churah in Pakistan...
tribe of the Pashtuns.
Corps of Guides
CorpsCorps
A corps is either a large formation, or an administrative grouping of troops within an armed force with a common function such as Artillery or Signals representing an arm of service...
of cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
and infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
, raised at Peshawar in 1846 by Lt. Harry Lumsden
Harry Burnett Lumsden
Lieutenant-General Sir Harry Burnett "Joe" Lumsden was a British military officer active in India.Lumsden was born aboard the East India Company’s ship Rose in the Bay of Bengal, the son of a British Army Colonel Thomas Lumsden, C.B...
, and later based at Hoti Mardan
Mardan
Mardan , known as The city of hospitality, is a city and headquarters of Mardan District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. It is the de facto headquarters of the Yousafzai tribe and the second most populous city in the province, located at 34°12'0N 72°1'60E and an altitude of in the south...
. Originally one troop
Troop
A troop is a military unit, originally a small force of cavalry, subordinate to a squadron and headed by the troop leader. In many armies a troop is the equivalent unit to the infantry section or platoon...
of cavalry and two companies
Company (military unit)
A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–225 soldiers and usually commanded by a Captain, Major or Commandant. Most companies are formed of three to five platoons although the exact number may vary by country, unit type, and structure...
of infantry, the cavalry component later expanded to 2½ squadrons
Squadron (cavalry)
A squadron was historically a cavalry sub unit. It is still used to refer to modern cavalry units but can also be used as a designation for other arms and services.-United States:...
, and the infantry to 4½ companies. Two further infantry battalions were raised in 1917.
From its inception the corps was clothed in native style, with smock, baggy trousers and turban of home-spun cotton, and jerkin of sheepskin. The cotton was dyed grey with a derivative of a dwarf palm known as mazari, while the leather was dyed khaki
Khaki (color)
The name of the color khaki coined in British India comes from the Hindustani language , meaning "dusty, dust covered or earth colored." It has been used by many armies around the world for uniforms, including camouflage...
with mulberry
Mulberry
Morus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae. The 10–16 species of deciduous trees it contains are commonly known as Mulberries....
juice. Thus was military dress first colored khaki for its camouflage
Camouflage
Camouflage is a method of concealment that allows an otherwise visible animal, military vehicle, or other object to remain unnoticed, by blending with its environment. Examples include a leopard's spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier and a leaf-mimic butterfly...
effect, and the Guides were the first troops to wear it. The drab color is well suited to the barren rocky terrain of the North-West Frontier, and all but one of the other Punjab frontier units soon followed the Guides example.
In 1848 the Second Sikh War broke out and the corps won its first battle honors; 'MOOLTAN', 'GOOJERAT', and 'PUNJAUB'. Thereafter the Guides were engaged in most frontier affairs, and from 1857 the corps was included in the Punjab Irregular Force
Punjab Irregular Force
The Punjab Irregular Force was created in 1851, to protect the NW frontier of British India. It was termed "Irregular" because it was outside the control of the Regular British armies of the 3 Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay or Madras, but was under the control of the British chief magistrate of...
, and subsequently in the Punjab Frontier Force.
That same year the Corps of Guides was ordered to Delhi, covering the 930 km from Mardan in twenty-two days and famously going into action on arrival. They were duly honored with DELHI 1857
Siege of Delhi
The Siege of Delhi was one of the decisive conflicts of the Indian rebellion of 1857.The rebellion against the authority of the British East India Company was widespread through much of Northern India, but essentially it was sparked by the mass uprising by the sepoys of the units of the Army which...
.
At the beginning of the Second Afghan War in 1878, the Guides Infantry, together with the 1st Sikh Infantry, PFF, took part in forcing the Khyber
Khyber Pass
The Khyber Pass, is a mountain pass linking Pakistan and Afghanistan.The Pass was an integral part of the ancient Silk Road. It is mentioned in the Bible as the "Pesh Habor," and it is one of the oldest known passes in the world....
, and were prominent in seizing the fortress of Ali Masjid
Ali Masjid
Ali Masjid is the narrowest point of the Khyber Pass. It is located in the Khyber Agency of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas , Pakistan. It is located around east of the city of Landi Kotal and has an elevation of...
. For this and subsequent efforts the Corps of Guides was awarded the battle honors ALI MASJID
Battle of Ali Masjid
The Battle of Ali Masjid, which took place on 21 November 1878, was the opening battle in the Second Anglo-Afghan War between the British forces, under Lieutenant-General Sir Samuel James Browne, and the Afghan tribesmen, under Ghulam Haider Khan...
, KABUL 1879, and AFGHANISTAN 1878-80.
The last decade of the 19th century saw the Guides employed in the Chitral campaign
Chitral Expedition
The Chitral Expedition was a military expedition in 1895 sent by the British authorities to relieve the fort at Chitral which was under siege after a local coup.-Background to the conflict:Chitral was at the extreme north west of British India...
of 1895, and the Punjab Frontier Revolt of 1897-8. Thus was the corps awarded the battle honors 'CHITRAL', 'MALAKAND'
Siege of Malakand
The Siege of Malakand was the 26 July – 2 August 1897 siege of the British garrison in the Malakand region of colonial British India's North West Frontier Province...
, and 'PUNJAB FRONTIER'.
The reforms of 1903 gave to the Queen's Own Corps of Guides (Lumsden's) a subsidiary title in the form of its founders name, but left it numberless. In 1911 the corps took up Frontier Force as its first subsidiary title.
During the First World War the cavalry branch of the Corps was deployed overseas to Mesopotamia
Mesopotamian Campaign
The Mesopotamian campaign was a campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I fought between the Allies represented by the British Empire, mostly troops from the Indian Empire, and the Central Powers, mostly of the Ottoman Empire.- Background :...
, but not before winning a further honor in its own territory; 'N.W. FRONTIER INDIA 1915'.
In 1922 the separation became permanent, when the mounted branch was redesignated the 10th Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides Cavalry (Frontier Force)
10th Queen Victoria's Own Corps Of Guides Cavalry (Frontier Force)
The Guides Cavalry is an armoured regiment of the Pakistan Army which was raised in 1846 as The Corps of Guides. During more than a hundred and fifty years of glorious military service, the regiment has earned the reputation of one of the most glamorous military units in the world.-Historical...
, and the infantry was amalgamated as the 5th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment
12th Frontier Force Regiment
The 12th Frontier Force Regiment was part of the British Indian Army. It was formed in 1922. It consisted of five regular battalions; numbered 1 to 5 and the 10th Battalion. During the Second World War a further ten battalions were raised. In 1945 the prenomial "12th" was dropped when the British...
(Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides).
Sind Frontier Force
Formed in 1846 to guard the southern part of the North-West Frontier. Initially consisting of just the Scinde IrregularIrregular military
Irregular military refers to any non-standard military. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term. It can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used....
Horse, the force under Capt. John Jacob was part of the Bombay Army
Bombay Army
The Bombay Army was the army of the Bombay Presidency, one of the three Presidencies of British India, in South Asia.The Presidency armies, like the presidencies themselves, belonged to the East India Company until the Government of India Act 1858 transferred all three presidencies to the direct...
.
Cavalry
The Scinde Irregular Horse was raised at HyderabadHyderabad, Sindh
is the second largest city in the Sindh province of Pakistan. It is the seventh largest city in the country. The city was founded in 1768 by Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro upon the ruins of a Mauryan fishing village along the bank of the Indus known as Neroon Kot...
in 1839 by Capt. Ward.
The regiment earned its first battle honour during the Operations in Scinde 1839-42, when it was awarded the unique distinction 'CUTCHEE'.
For the subsequent Scinde Campaign of 1843 it was awarded 'MEEANEE'
Battle of Miani
The Battle of Miani was a battle between British forces under Sir Charles Napier and the Talpur Amirs of Sindh, Pakistan.-Background:...
and 'HYDERABAD'.
A second regiment was raised at Hyderabad in 1846 by Capt. J. Jacob.
During the Second Sikh War both the 1st and 2nd Irregular Horse earned further distinction with 'MOOLTAN', 'GOOJERAT', and 'PUNJAUB'.
A third regiment was raised in 1857, and in 1860 the regiments were designated simply Scinde Horse.
The 1st Scinde Horse was deployed to suppress the Sepoy Revolt of 1857-8, and was duly awarded CENTRAL INDIA.
All three regiments were rewarded for their part in the Second Afghan War:-
- 1st Scinde Horse; AFGHANISTAN 1878-79
- 2nd Scinde Horse; AFGHANISTAN 1879-80
- 3rd Scinde Horse; KANDAHAR 1880Battle of KandaharThe Battle of Kandahar, 1 September 1880, was the last major conflict of the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The battle in southern Afghanistan was fought between the British forces under command of General Roberts and the Afghan forces led by Ayub Khan, inflicting nearly 3,000 casualties in...
, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
Its hard-won honors notwithstanding, the third regiment was disbanded in 1882.
The 1st and 2nd Regiments joined the Bombay line in 1885 as the 5th and 6th Bombay Cavalry respectively.
In the reformed Indian Army in 1903 they were likewise redesignated 35th Scinde Horse and 36th Jacob's Horse
36th Jacob's Horse
- Origins :Raised by Lieut. John Jacob of the Bombay Artillery, they served first in Southern Afghanistan and later under Sir Charles Napier in the taking of Scinde....
.
Infantry
Jacob's Rifles, raised in 1858 by Maj. John Jacob.In 1861 the rifles joined the Bombay line as the 30th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry.
The regiment was honored for its part in the Second Afghan War with AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
Designated 130th Baluchis
130th Baluchis
The 130th Baluchis was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army raised in 1858 as the 1st Regiment of Jacob’s Rifles or 1st Belooch Rifles. It was designated as the 130th Baluchis in 1903 and became 5th Battalion 10th Baluch Regiment in 1922...
in 1903, the subsidiary title was restored in 1910.
Artillery
The force was augmented with No. 2 Coy. Bombay Native Artillery in 1875, when that company relieved the men of Jacob's Rfles manning the guns of the force headquarters at JacobabadJacobabad
Jacobabad or Yaqubabad is the capital city of Jacobabad District, Sindh, Pakistan. The city is also the administrative centre of Jacobabad Taluka, an administrative subdivision of the district, the city is subdivided into 8 Union Councils...
.
Converted to a mountain
Mountain gun
Mountain guns are artillery pieces designed for use in mountain warfare and areas where usual wheeled transport is not possible. They are similar to infantry support guns, and are generally capable of being broken down into smaller loads .Due to their ability to be broken down into smaller...
battery the following year, the company was accordingly redesignated No. 2 Bombay Mountain Battery.
For its part in the Second Afghan War the battery was awarded the honor AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
Later re-numbered as No. 6 (Bombay) Mountain Battery, and then briefly renamed the Jullundur Mountain Battery, the unit took its place in the reformed Indian Army of 1903 as 26th Jacob's Mountain Battery
26th Jacob's Mountain Battery
The 26th Jacob's Mountain Battery was an artillery battery of the British Indian Army. To honour the visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales to Indian they took part in the Rawalpindi Parade 1905. It served in World War I...
.
Frontier Brigade
Created in 1846 to police the newly acquired Punjab border against the Pakhtun hill tribes.The brigade was formed by Lt. Col. Henry Montgomery Lawrence
Henry Montgomery Lawrence
Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence was a British soldier and statesman in India, who died defending Lucknow during the Indian Mutiny.-Career:Lawrence was the brother of John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence and was born at Matara, Ceylon...
from four regiments of infantry raised in 1846 from veterans of the Sikh
Sikh
A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism. It primarily originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region of South Asia. The term "Sikh" has its origin in Sanskrit term शिष्य , meaning "disciple, student" or शिक्ष , meaning "instruction"...
forces disbanded after the First Anglo-Sikh War
First Anglo-Sikh War
The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company between 1845 and 1846. It resulted in partial subjugation of the Sikh kingdom.-Background and causes of the war:...
:-
- 1st Regiment, raised at HoshiarpurHoshiarpurHoshiarpur is a city and a municipal council in Hoshiarpur district in the Indian state of Punjab. It was founded, according to tradition, during the early part of the fourth century. In 1809 it was occupied by the forces of Maharaja Karanvir Singh and was united into the greater state of Punjab....
by Capt. J. S. Hodgson. - 2nd Regiment, raised at Kangra by Capt. J. W. V. Stephen.
- 3rd Regiment, raised at FirozpurFirozpurFirozpur is a city on the banks of the Sutlej River in Firozpur District, Punjab, India, founded by Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq , a Muslim ruler of the Tughlaq Dynasty who reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388.The Manj Rajputs say the town was named after their chief, a Rajput of...
by Capt. F. Winter. - 4th Regiment, raised at Ludhiana by Capt. C. Mackenzie.
The brigades Frontier designation was discontinued in 1847, and the four regiments became Sikh Local Infantry.
For their part in the Second Sikh War the 1st and 2nd (or Hill) regiments were awarded the battle honor 'PUNJAUB'.
Cavalry
Five cavalry regiments were raised in 1849 and designated Punjab Cavalry:-- 1st Regiment, raised at Peshawar by Lt. H. Daly.
- 2nd Regiment, raised at Lahore by Lt. S. J. BrowneSam BrowneGeneral Sir Samuel James Browne VC GCB KCSI was a British Indian Army cavalry officer in India and the Afghanistan, best known today as the namesake of the Sam Browne belt...
. - 3rd Regiment, raised at Lahore by Lt. W. G. Prendergast.
- 4th Regiment
- 5th Regiment, raised at MultanMultanMultan , is a city in the Punjab Province of Pakistan and capital of Multan District. It is located in the southern part of the province on the east bank of the Chenab River, more or less in the geographic centre of the country and about from Islamabad, from Lahore and from Karachi...
by Capt. R. Fitzgerald.
Infantry
Five infantry regiments were raised in 1849 from Sikh DarbarDarbar
Darbar may refer to:* A term for a court in Urdu from the Persian - Durbar * A surname used in the Indian Subcontinent, it originated during Mughal rule...
regiments disbanded after the Second Anglo-Sikh War
Second Anglo-Sikh War
The Second Anglo-Sikh War took place in 1848 and 1849, between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company. It resulted in the subjugation of the Sikh Empire, and the annexation of the Punjab and what subsequently became the North-West Frontier Province by the East India Company.-Background...
, and designated Punjab Infantry:-
- 1st Regiment, raised at PeshawarPeshawarPeshawar is the capital of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and the administrative center and central economic hub for the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan....
by Capt. John CokeJohn Coke (EICo)Pronounced "Cook"Major-General John Coke, C.B., 10th Regiment Bengal Native Infantry was a soldier of the British Indian Army, who raised in 1849 the 1st Regiment of Punjab Infantry, renamed in 1903 55th Coke's Rifles . Major-General Coke received the Delhi medal and clasp, and was made Companion...
. - 2nd Regiment, raised at MianwaliMianwaliMianwali is the capital city of Mianwali District and situated in the north-west of Punjab province, Pakistan. The city is located on the eastern bank of the Indus River...
by Lt. L. C. Johnston. - 3rd Regiment
- 4th Regiment, raised at LahoreLahoreLahore is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and the second largest city in the country. With a rich and fabulous history dating back to over a thousand years ago, Lahore is no doubt Pakistan's cultural capital. One of the most densely populated cities in the world, Lahore remains a...
by Capt. George Gladwin Denniss II. - 5th Regiment, raised at Leiah by Capt. James Eardley Gastrell.
- 6th Regiment, originally raised at KarachiKarachiKarachi is the largest city, main seaport and the main financial centre of Pakistan, as well as the capital of the province of Sindh. The city has an estimated population of 13 to 15 million, while the total metropolitan area has a population of over 18 million...
in 1843 as the Scinde Camel Corps, and redesignated Punjab Infantry in 1853.
Punjab Irregular Force
Formed in 1851 by combining the Corps of Guides, the four regiments of Sikh Local Infantry, the Transfrontier Brigade, and five batteries of artilleryArtillery battery
In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit of guns, mortars, rockets or missiles so grouped in order to facilitate better battlefield communication and command and control, as well as to provide dispersion for its constituent gunnery crews and their systems...
. The units of the force came to be known collectively from its initials as Piffers.
Cavalry
The Punjab Cavalry regiments were redesignated Cavalry, Punjab Irregular Force.While the 3rd and 4th regiments remained on the frontier, the 1st, 2nd, and 5th were employed in suppressing the Sepoy Revolt, and later rewarded with the battle honors DELHI 1857, and LUCKNOW.
Artillery
Batteries were raised from various sources:-- No. 1 Horse Light Field Battery, PIF
- No. 2 Horse Light Field Battery, PIF, raised at BannuBannuBannu is the principal city of the Bannu District in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. It is an important road junction and market city. Bannu is a very old city, founded in ancient times; however, the present location of the downtown Bannu was founded by Sir Herbert Edwardes in 1848,...
in 1851 by Lt. H. Hammond, from detachments of horse artillery formerly in the service of the Lahore Darbar. - No. 3 Horse Light Field Battery, PIF, raised at Dera Ghazi KhanDera Ghazi KhanDera Ghazi Khan is a city located in Dera Ghazi Khan District, Punjab, Pakistan. Dera Ghazi Khan is one of the most populous cities in Southern Punjab, and it is the largest district in Punjab in terms of area, being approximately in extent....
in 1849 by Lt. D. McNeill, from a disbanded troop of horse artillery formerly in the service of the Lahore Darbar. - No. 4 or Garrison Company, PIF, raised at Bannu in 1851 by Lt. S. W. Stokes, from the supernumerariesSupernumeraryA Supernumerary is an additional member of an organization. A supernumerary is also a non-regular member of a staff, a member of the staff or an employee who works in a public office who is not part of the manpower complement...
of a Sikh detachment of artillery which had been broken up and drafted into the horse light field batteries.
The Horse Light Field Batteries were generally known as Punjab Light Field Batteries.
Later the force gained two further batteries:-
- Hazara Mountain Train Battery, PIF, in 1856. (Formed at Haripur in 1851 , by Lt. G. G. Pearse.)
- Peshawar Mountain Train Battery, PIF, in 1862. (Formed at Peshawar in 1853 by Capt. T. Brougham.)
Infantry
In 1857 the four regiments of Sikh Local Infantry became Sikh Infantry, Punjab Irregular Force.The six Punjab Infantry regiments were simply redesignated Infantry, Punjab Irregular Force.
The 4th Regiment of Sikh Infantry served in the Second Burma War
Second Anglo-Burmese War
The Second Anglo-Burmese War was the second of the three wars fought between the Burmese and the British Empire during the 19th century, with the outcome of the gradual extinction of Burmese sovereignty and independence....
, winning the honor PEGU, and then marched 900 km from Abbottabad in thirty days to help suppress the revolt in Delhi, and like the Guides going into action on arrival. There it won also DELHI 1857. The other Sikh Infantry regiments remained in the Punjab.
Leaving the 3rd, 5th, & 6th Punjab Infantry Regiments to guard the frontier, the 1st, 2nd, and 4th were sent to put down the revolt in Delhi
Delhi
Delhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
. There they earned the honor DELHI 1857. The 2nd and 4th regiments were also rewarded with LUCKNOW.
From 1861 the force included a 7th Infantry Regiment, formed from the Hazara Gurkha
Gurkha
Gurkha are people from Nepal who take their name from the Gorkha District. Gurkhas are best known for their history in the Indian Army's Gorkha regiments, the British Army's Brigade of Gurkhas and the Nepalese Army. Gurkha units are closely associated with the kukri, a forward-curving Nepalese knife...
Battalion, which later that year joined the Gurkha Line as the 5th Gurkha Regiment.
Punjab Frontier Force
In 1865 the Punjab Irregular ForcePunjab Irregular Force
The Punjab Irregular Force was created in 1851, to protect the NW frontier of British India. It was termed "Irregular" because it was outside the control of the Regular British armies of the 3 Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay or Madras, but was under the control of the British chief magistrate of...
was renamed the Punjab Frontier Force, and the constituent units were redesignated accordingly.
During peacetime the Force was under the direct control of the Lt.-Governor of the Punjab, but in war it came under the Commander-in-Chief, India
Commander-in-Chief, India
During the period of the British Raj, the Commander-in-Chief, India was the supreme commander of the Indian Army. The Commander-in-Chief and most of his staff were based at General Headquarters, India, and liaised with the civilian Governor-General of India...
.
After the three Presidency armies
Presidency armies
The presidency armies were the armies of the three presidencies of the East India Company's rule in India, later the forces of the British Crown in India...
, it was the most important military force at the Governor-General
Governor-General of India
The Governor-General of India was the head of the British administration in India, and later, after Indian independence, the representative of the monarch and de facto head of state. The office was created in 1773, with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William...
's disposal. Deployed
Military deployment
Military deployment is the movement of armed forces and their logistical support infrastructure around the world.-United States:The United States Military defines the term as follows:...
and engaged
Engagement (military)
A military engagement is a combat between two forces, neither larger than a division and not smaller than a company, in which each has an assigned or perceived mission...
in numerous border expeditions
Expeditionary warfare
Expeditionary warfare is used to describe the organization of a state's military to fight abroad, especially when deployed to fight away from its established bases at home or abroad. Expeditionary forces were in part the antecedent of the modern concept of Rapid Deployment Forces...
, it became the most experienced body of fighting troops in India.
Most of the force saw action during the Second Afghan War.
The designation Punjab Frontier Force was dropped in 1901, but with the Kitchener Reforms
Kitchener Reforms
The Kitchener Reforms of the Indian Army began in 1903 when Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, newly appointed Commander-in-Chief, India, completed the unification of the three armies of the former Presidencies , and also the Punjab Frontier Force, the Hyderabad Contingent and other local forces, into one...
two years later, the former distinction was restored to the newly re-numbered regiments in the form of the subsidiary title Frontier Force.
Cavalry
Officially designated Cavalry, Punjab Frontier Force, the earlier style endured, and was restored in 1901.Four of the regiments were honored for service in the Second Afghan War:-
- 1st Punjab Cavalry; AHMED KHELBattle of Ahmed KhelThe Battle of Ahmed Khel was fought in April 1880 and ended in a British victory. This battle occurred during General Donald Stewart's march from Kandahar to Ghazni, then on to Kabul.-Order of battle:*Royal Horse Artillery*Royal Artillery...
, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80 - 2nd Punjab Cavalry; AHMED KHEL, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
- 3rd Punjab Cavalry; KANDAHAR 1880, AFGHANISTAN 1879-80
- 5th Punjab Cavalry; CHARASIA, KABUL 1879Battle of Ahmed KhelThe Battle of Ahmed Khel was fought in April 1880 and ended in a British victory. This battle occurred during General Donald Stewart's march from Kandahar to Ghazni, then on to Kabul.-Order of battle:*Royal Horse Artillery*Royal Artillery...
, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
The 4th regiment served on the frontier before being disbanded in 1882.
In 1903 the four remaining regiments were brought into the new Indian Army line by adding twenty to their original numbers:-
- 21st Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) (Daly's Horse)
- 22nd Sam Browne's Cavalry (Frontier Force)
- 23rd Cavalry (Frontier Force)
- 25th Cavalry (Frontier Force)
Artillery
The two mountain trains were redesignated mountain batteriesMountain gun
Mountain guns are artillery pieces designed for use in mountain warfare and areas where usual wheeled transport is not possible. They are similar to infantry support guns, and are generally capable of being broken down into smaller loads .Due to their ability to be broken down into smaller...
in 1865.
In 1876 the three Punjab Light Field Batteries were reduced to form two further mountain batteries, and the four were then renumbered according to their relative precedence, and designated Punjab Mountain Batteries, Punjab Frontier Force.
The former Garrison Company was also renumbered in the same sequence to become the No. 5 Garrison Battery, Punjab Frontier Force.
All four mountain batteries were honored for their part in the Second Afghan War:-
- No. 1 (Kohat) Punjab Mountain Battery; PEIWAR KOTALBattle of Peiwar KotalThe Battle of Peiwar Kotal was fought on November 28-29 1878 between British forces under Sir Frederick Roberts and Afghan forces under Karim Khan, during the opening stages of the Second Anglo-Afghan War...
, KABUL 1879, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80 - No. 2 (Derajat) Punjab Mountain Battery; CHARASIA, KABUL 1879, KANDAHAR 1880, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
- No. 3 (Peshawar) Punjab Mountain Battery; AFGHANISTAN 1878-79
- No. 4 (Hazara) Punjab Mountain Battery; ALI MASJID, KABUL 1879, AFGHANISTAN 1879-80
In 1895 the Derajat and Hazara Mountain Batteries were part of the relief expedition that was rewarded with the honor CHITRAL
Chitral Expedition
The Chitral Expedition was a military expedition in 1895 sent by the British authorities to relieve the fort at Chitral which was under siege after a local coup.-Background to the conflict:Chitral was at the extreme north west of British India...
.
The Frontier Revolt of 1897-8 saw the Kohat and Derajat batteries in action again, earning the honors TIRAH
Tirah Campaign
The Tirah Campaign, often referred to in contemporary British accounts as the Tirah Expedition, was an Indian frontier war in 1897–98. Tirah is a mountainous tract of country.-Rebellion:...
and PUNJAB FRONTIER.
In 1901 the battery numbers were dropped, and they known by name only. Two years later the four mountain batteries were re-numbered from twenty-one, and the former Piffer batteries were thus:-
- 21st Kohat Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)21st Kohat Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)The 21st Kohat Mountain Battery was an artillery battery of the British Indian Army. Its classed as the premier Indian Mountain Battery being raised at Bannu in 1851, from disbanded Sikh artillerymen following the Second Sikh War of 1849....
- 22nd Derajat Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)22nd Derajat Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)The 2nd Derajat Mountain Battery was an artillery battery in the British Indian Army. The battery was raised in 1851, from disbanded Sikh artillerymen following the Second Sikh War....
- 23rd Peshawar Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)23rd Peshawar Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)The 23rd Peshawar Mountain Battery was an artillery battery of the British Indian Army. They were raised in Peshawar in 1853, and soon thereafter took part in numerous Frontier campaigns, the most important of which was the Umbeyla Campaign of 1863. From December 1871 to February 1872, the Battery...
- 24th Hazara Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)24th Hazara Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)The 24th Hazara Mountain Battery was an artillery battery of the British Indian Army. The battery was raised in 1851, at Haripur in order to help defend the Hazara District of the North West Frontier. The 4th soon saw action in numerous small campaigns on the North West Frontier...
- The Frontier Garrison Artillery
Infantry
The four Sikh regiments were simply redesignated Sikh Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force.The six former Punjab Infantry regiments were officially redesignated Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force, but the earlier style lingered and was restored in 1901.
Although never designated as such, the 5th Gurkha Regiment was brigaded with the force in practice.
All but two of the infantry regiments took the field in the Second Afghan War, and their subsequent awards were:-
- 1st Sikh Infantry; ALI MASJID, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
- 2nd Sikh Infantry; AMED KHEL, KANDAHAR 1880, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
- 3rd Sikh Infantry; KABUL 1879, KANDAHAR 1880, AFGHANISTAN 1879-80
- 1st Punjab Infantry; AFGHANISTAN 1878-79
- 2nd Punjab Infantry; PEIWAR KOTALBattle of Peiwar KotalThe Battle of Peiwar Kotal was fought on November 28-29 1878 between British forces under Sir Frederick Roberts and Afghan forces under Karim Khan, during the opening stages of the Second Anglo-Afghan War...
, AFGHANISTAN 1878-79 - 4th Punjab Infantry; AFGHANISTAN 1879-80
- 5th Punjab Infantry; PEIWAR KOTAL, CHARASIA, KABUL 1879, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
- 5th Gurkha Regiment; PEIWAR KOTAL, CHARASIA, KABUL 1879, AFGHANISTAN 1878-80
Spending cuts after the war resulted in the disbandment of the 3rd Punjab Infantry in 1882.
Spared the same fate, the 4th Sikh Infantry was employed in the expedition of 1895 earning the honor CHITRAL
Chitral Expedition
The Chitral Expedition was a military expedition in 1895 sent by the British authorities to relieve the fort at Chitral which was under siege after a local coup.-Background to the conflict:Chitral was at the extreme north west of British India...
.
The Frontier Revolt of 1897-8 saw the 3rd Sikh and 2nd Punjab Infantries employed in the Tirah Campaign
Tirah Campaign
The Tirah Campaign, often referred to in contemporary British accounts as the Tirah Expedition, was an Indian frontier war in 1897–98. Tirah is a mountainous tract of country.-Rebellion:...
, earning them the honors TIRAH and PUNJAB FRONTIER. The 5th Gurkha Rifles was also awarded PUNJAB FRONTIER.
In 1903 the four Sikh Infantry regiments were brought into the new Indian Army Line by adding fifty to their original numbers:-
- 51st Sikhs (Frontier Force)51st Sikhs (Frontier Force)The 51st Sikhs was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1846 as the 1st Regiment of Infantry The Frontier Brigade. It was designated as the 51st Sikhs in 1903 and became 1st Battalion 12th Frontier Force Regiment in 1922...
- 52nd Sikhs (Frontier Force)52nd Sikhs (Frontier Force)The 52nd Sikhs was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1846 as the 2nd Regiment of Infantry The Frontier Brigade. It was designated as the 52nd Sikhs in 1903 and became 2nd Battalion 12th Frontier Force Regiment in 1922...
- 53rd Sikhs (Frontier Force)53rd Sikhs (Frontier Force)The 53rd Sikhs were an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1847 as the 3rd Regiment of Infantry The Frontier Brigade. It was designated as the 53rd Sikhs in 1903 and became 3rd Battalion 12th Frontier Force Regiment in 1922...
- 54th Sikhs (Frontier Force)54th Sikhs (Frontier Force)The 54th Sikhs were an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1846 as the 4th Regiment of Infantry The Frontier Brigade. It was designated as the 54th Sikhs in 1903 and became 4th Battalion 12th Frontier Force Regiment in 1922...
The five remaining regiments of Punjab Infantry were consecutively renumbered in the same sequence to become:-
- 55th Coke's Rifles (Frontier Force)55th Coke's Rifles (Frontier Force)The 55th Coke's Rifles was a regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1849 as the 1st Regiment of Punjab Infantry. It was designated as the 55th Coke's Rifles in 1903 and became 1st Battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922...
- 56th Punjabi Rifles (Frontier Force)56th Punjabi Rifles (Frontier Force)The 56th Punjabi Rifles was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1849 as the 2nd Regiment of Punjab Infantry. It was designated as the 56th Punjabi Rifles in 1906 and became 2nd Battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922...
- 57th Wilde's Rifles (Frontier Force)57th Wilde's Rifles (Frontier Force)The 4th Punjab Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army formed on 18 April 1849 by Captain GG Denniss at Lahore as part of the Transfrontier Brigade, which became the Punjab Irregular Force in 1851. The regiment was designated as the 57th Wilde's Rifles in 1903, and...
- 58th Vaughan's Rifles (Frontier Force)58th Vaughan's Rifles (Frontier Force)The 58th Vaughan's Rifles was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. It was raised in 1849 as the 5th Regiment of Punjab Infantry. It was designated as the 58th Vaughan's Rifles in 1903 and became 5th Battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles in 1922...
- 59th Scinde Rifles (Frontier Force)59th Scinde Rifles (Frontier Force)The 59 Scinde Rifles was an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army.The regiment is one of the most reputed outfits of British Indian Army. It was raised in 1843, as the Scinde Camel Corps. In 1856, it was incorporated into the Punjab Irregular Force...
The 5th Gurkha Rifles (Frontier Force) took on the subsidiary title denoting their origin.
Frontier Corps
Although the units of the Frontier Corps operated under a variety of titles, from Rifles to Militia to Scouts, it was the latter term that came to stand as the generic term, and as new units were formed, it was the word 'Scouts' that became fixed and formalised for the regimental titles. The expression 'Scouts' was a militarily neutral term, conveying neither the "crack" reputation associated with the word 'Rifles' (cf.: 60th Rifles [HM], Gurkha Rifles [IA], etc.), nor the rather second-rate expectations of the term 'Militia'. As General Baden-Powell noted, when he was looking, many years later, for a suitably inspiring term to adopt for his youth movement to train young boys in fieldcraft and other 'para-military' activities, the word Scouts encapsulated a spirit of 'dash' (enthusiasm), expertise - within a defined set of skills- and familiarity with both the local conditions. Similarly, the Scouts of the Frontier Corps understood both the local terrain and the local political minefields, that is, who could be trusted (e.g. the Turi), and who could never (almost invariably, this would mean the Mahsuds); who was currently nursing a grievance and therefore best avoided, and who had just had a claim settled to their satisfaction and might be uncharacteristically friendly.Like many things British, the development of the units of Scouts into the Frontier Corps was organic, unplanned and initially unsystematic. It began, in the British manner, as an improvisation to meet a need; it was maintained because it guaranteed certain unique skills at an acceptable price (the great Empire may have vaunted its 'pomp and circumstance' to wow the impressionable, but behind the scenes the deciding factor was often simply the acceptability or otherwise to HM Treasury) and only then was the principle regularised, standardised and systemised (cf. the development of the Frontier Force, from irregulars to a corps d'elite).
Chronology
- 1878: the Khyber RiflesKhyber RiflesThe Khyber Rifles is a para-military force forming part of the modern Pakistan Army's Frontier Corps. Dating from the late nineteenth century the regiment provided the title and setting for a widely read novel, King of the Khyber Rifles....
- 1889: the Zhob Militia
- 1892: the Kurram Militia
- 1900: the Chitral Scouts
- 1900: the North Waziristan Militia
- 1900: the South Waziristan Militia
- 1913: the Gilgit ScoutsGilgit ScoutsThe Gilgit Scouts is the name of a paramilitary force that was originally raised, under the name the "Gligit Levies", in 1889, by British Army Colonel Algernon Durand...
- 1914–18: the Great War in Europe and the Near East
- 1917: the Mohmand Militia
- 1919: Third Anglo-Afghan WarThird Anglo-Afghan WarThe Third Anglo-Afghan War began on 6 May 1919 and ended with an armistice on 8 August 1919. It was a minor tactical victory for the British. For the British, the Durand Line was reaffirmed as the political boundary between the Emirate of Afghanistan and British India and the Afghans agreed not to...
- 1919: Khyber Rifles disbanded
- 1921: South Waziristan Militia disbanded
- 1921: Mohmand Militia disbanded
- 1922: the Tochi Scouts
- 1922: the South Waziristan Scouts
- 1939–45: the Second World War
- 1946: the Pishin Scouts
- 1946: Khyber Rifles reformed
- 1947: Independence and partitionPartition of IndiaThe Partition of India was the partition of British India on the basis of religious demographics that led to the creation of the sovereign states of the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India on 14 and 15...
- 1948: the Chagai Militia
- 1949: the Northern Scouts
- 1949: the Thal Scouts
- 1960: the Mahsud Scouts
- 1961: the Bajaur Scouts
- 1964: the Karakoram Scouts
- 1965: the Kalat Scouts
- 1973: the Shawal Scouts
Location
Geographically, the Scouts were located, from north to south, as follows:- The Gilgit Scouts. HQ: GilgitGilgitGilgit is a city in northern PakistanGilgit may refer to other terms related with the area of the city:* Gilgit River* Gilgit Valley* Gilgit District* Gilgit Agency * Gilgit Airport...
- The Chitral Scouts
- The Khyber RiflesKhyber RiflesThe Khyber Rifles is a para-military force forming part of the modern Pakistan Army's Frontier Corps. Dating from the late nineteenth century the regiment provided the title and setting for a widely read novel, King of the Khyber Rifles....
- The Kurram Militia. HQ: ParachinarParachinarParachinar is the capital of Kurram Agency, FATA of Pakistan. It is about 290 km west of the capital, Islamabad...
- The North Waziristan Militia, then: The Tochi Scouts. HQ: MiranshahMiranshahMiranshah is the capital or headquarters of North Waziristan in Pakistan. It is the site of a town, which has s small airfield that was built by the British for World War II. The area in which Miranshah sits is extremely dangerous mainly due to Taliban activities and U.S. Drone...
. - The South Waziristan Militia, then: The South Waziristan Scouts. HQ: (Militia): WanaWanaWana is the largest town of South Waziristan Agency in Pakistan's FATA . It is the summer headquarters for the Agency's administration, Tank located in neighbouring Tank District being the winter HQ-Colonial history:...
, then (Scouts): JandolaJandolaJandola is a town in Frontier Region Tank, Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan....
. - The Zhob Militia. HQ: Fort Sandeman
- (The Pishin Scouts)
Tribal affiliations
The Frontier Corps were not founded expressly on a tribal basis, but the older corps drew their recruits from the local tribal area:-- the Khyber Rifles from the tribes bordering the KhyberKhyber PassThe Khyber Pass, is a mountain pass linking Pakistan and Afghanistan.The Pass was an integral part of the ancient Silk Road. It is mentioned in the Bible as the "Pesh Habor," and it is one of the oldest known passes in the world....
; namely the Afridi, ShinwariShinwariThe Shinwari are an ethnic Pashtun tribe of western Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.In Pakistan, this tribe is active in trade, commerce, poetry, administrators and politicians within the Pakistani government; the majority are based in the Landi Kotal region of the Federally Administered Tribal...
, and MullagoriMullagoriThe Mullagori are a Pashtun tribe who inhabit the Khyber Agency, one of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan.-Origins:... - the Kurram Militia from the Turi and BangashBangashBangash is the name of a Pashtun clan. The Bangash clan inhabit regions within the Federally Administered Tribal Areas , the Kurram Agency, the Miranzai Valley bordering the Samana Range, Naryab, Tirah, Kohat and Peshawar within the Sarhad province...
of the Kurram ValleyKurram ValleyKurram tribal agency is located in the FATA area of Pakistan. Geographically it covers Kurram Valley which is a beautiful valley in the northwestern part of Pakistan neighboring Afghanistan.... - the Chitral Scouts from the Chitrali of ChitralChitral DistrictChitral is a district in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan that contains the town of Chitral. It has an area of 14,850 km² and a population of 318,689 at the 1998 Census, which had subsequently risen to about 378,000 people by 2004. It has one of the highest mountains of the world,...
See also
- BannuBannuBannu is the principal city of the Bannu District in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. It is an important road junction and market city. Bannu is a very old city, founded in ancient times; however, the present location of the downtown Bannu was founded by Sir Herbert Edwardes in 1848,...
- Bannu DistrictBannu DistrictBannu District is one of the twenty four districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, it is represented in the provincial assembly by four MPAs. The chief city of the district is Bannu. The major industries are cloth weaving and the manufacture of cotton fabrics, machinery, and...
- DerajatDerajatDerajat meaning, 'Land of the Jats' or "Jat Land'. Derajat is a cultural region of central Pakistan, located in the region where the provinces of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab meet. Derajat is bound by the Indus River to the east and the mountains to the west...
- Gomal RiverGomal RiverGomal River is a river in the historical region of Pashtunistan, consisting of areas in Afghanistan and Pakistan, inhabited by the Pashtuns...
- Kohat PassKohat PassKohat Pass is a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, connecting Kohat with Peshawar, crossing the Khigana Mountains.As the road to the pass is steep and too narrow for large vehicles, the Kohat Tunnel was constructed and opened in June, 2003. -External links:*...
- North WaziristanNorth WaziristanNorth Waziristan is the northern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering . Waziristan comprises the area west and south-west of Peshawar between the Tochi river to the north and the Gomal river to the south, forming part of Pakistan's...
- South WaziristanSouth WaziristanSouth Waziristan is the southern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering some 11,585 km² . Waziristan comprises the area west and southwest of Peshawar between the Tochi River to the north and the Gomal River to the south, forming...
- TankTank (Pakistan)Tank or Tonk , is the capital city of Tank District, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The city's location near Waziristan.- Location :It is located at 32º13' N. and 70º32' E and is situated to the north-west of the Indus River and close to the Takht-i-Sulaiman Range. Tank is hot and humid in summer...
- Tochi ValleyTochi ValleyTochi Valley, , is one of the main routes into Afghanistan from the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa of Pakistan.The Tochi Valley leads from Bannu District through tribal areas, and is inhabited by the Dawari tribe. The valley is divided into two parts, known as Upper and Lower Dawar, by a narrow pass called the...
Further reading
- General Staff Branch, Army Headquarters, India. (1923). Operations in Waziristan 1919-20. Government Central Press. Delhi. Republished jointly by the Naval & Military Press and the Imperial War Museum. ISBN 1-84342-773-7
- Official History of Operations on the N. W. Frontier of India 1936-37. Republished jointly by the Naval & Military Press and the Imperial War Museum. ISBN 1-84342-765-6
- Stewart, Jules. (2007). The Savage Border - The Story of the North-West Frontier. Sutton Publishing. Stroud, Gloucestershire. ISBN 978-0-7509-4452-6
- Moreman, Tim. (1998) The Army in India and the Development of Frontier Warfare 1847–1947. Macmillan: London.