Encyclopedia
Nigeria, officially the
Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in
West Africa and the most populous country on the
African continent. Nigeria shares land
borders with the Republic of
Benin in the west,
Chad and
Cameroon in the east,
Niger in the north, and borders the
Gulf of Guinea in the south. Since 1991, its capital has been the centrally-located city of
Abuja; previously, the
Nigerian government was headquartered in
Lagos.
The people of Nigeria have an extensive history, and based on archaeological evidence, human habitation of the area dates back to at least 9000 BC. The
Benue-Cross River area is thought to be the original homeland of the
Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and southern Africa in waves between the 1st millennium BC and the 2nd millennium AD. However, the Nigerian state came into being on October 1, 1960 when Nigeria declared its independence from the British and at present consists of 36 states and the federal capital territory. Nigeria re-achieved democracy in 1999 after a sixteen-year interruption by a series of military dictators. From 1966 until 1999, Nigeria had been ruled by military dictators who seized power in
coups and counter-coups.
Etymology
The country's name first appeared in print in
The Times is a national newspaper [i] published daily in the United Kingdom [i] since 1785, and unde ...
in 1897 and was suggested by the paper's colonial editor Flora Shaw who would later marry
Frederick Lugard, the first Governor General of the Amalgamated Nigeria. The name comes from a combination of the words "
Niger" and "Area". Its adjective form is
Nigerian, which should not be confused with
Nigerien for
Niger.
History
Nigeria has had a unique history. More than 2,000 years ago, the
Nok people were producing sculptures. In Kano and
Katsina, recorded history dates back to around 1000.
Hausa kingdoms and the
Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa. The
Yoruba kingdoms of
If? and ?y? were founded about 700-900 and 1400 respectively. The If? produced the terra cotta and bronze heads, the ?y? extended as far as modern
Togo. The
Kingdom of Benin developed an efficient and renowned army. The Benin are related to the Yoruba by history. The southeast produced the Onitsha, Nri, and Arochukwu kingdoms. The Nri kingdom reigned before slavery with Divine priests and powerful Ezenri. There was also the great Ogbunka kingdom which was noted for his ability to repulse every form of aggression. A prominent town they controlled was Igbo Ukwu which was home to
Bronze figures and was a burial site for Kings. Other kingdoms also flourished, like the
Calabar, Opobo, Bonny,
Brass, Elem kalabari and others which were controlled by the Ijaw,
Efik, Igbo, and Ibibio.
Beginning in the 17th century Europeans established ports for slave trafficking. In the early 19th century the
Fulani leader Usman dan Fodio united most areas in the north under the control of an Islamic Fulani Empire centred in
Sokoto.
The
17th century brought
Portuguese traders to what is now the Lagos area. In fact, the name Lagos came from the Portuguese word for lagoon, resulting in the name of the area. However, it was the
British in the
19th century that established permanent settlement and control over the region. In 1901, Nigeria was made a British protectorate and remained under the control of Britain until its independence in 1960.
Newly independent Nigeria's government was coalition of conservative parties: the Nigerian People's Congress , a party dominated by Northerners and those of the
Islamic faith, and the
Igbo-dominated National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons led by
Nnamdi Azikiwe, who became Nigeria's maiden
Governor-General in 1960. Forming the opposition was the comparatively liberal Action Group , which was largely dominated by
Yorubas and led by
Obafemi Awolowo. The nation parted with its British legacy in 1963 by declaring itself a
Federal Republic, with Azikiwe as the first
president. When elections came about in 1965, the AG was outmanouvered for control of Nigeria's Western Region by the Nigerian National Democratic Party an ammalgamation of conservative Yoruba elements backed heavily by the Federal Government amid dubious electoral circumstances. This left the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG in a weak progressive alliance.
This disequilibrum in power led in 1966 to a back-to-back
military coups by regional and ethnic cabals. The first was in January led by leftists under General
Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, the then-army head of Igbo extraction, who was installed as head of state. The Igbo-led coup was counter-acted by another successful plot, supported primarily by Northern military officers and engineered by
Murtala Mohammed, which allowed Gen.
Yakubu Gowan to become head of state. The Northern coup was accompanied by widespread sectarian violence against ethnic Igbos migrants in the north and middle belt regions, and subsequently forced many to flee in large numbers to their homeland in the south. The perpetration of violence against Igbos, which many considered to be of genocidal proportions, increased their desire for autonomy and protection from the military's wrath. By May 1967, the Eastern Region had declared itself an independent state called the
Republic of Biafra under the leadership Lieutenant Colonel
Emeka Ojukwu. To oversimplify, a lull of several months occured after the declaration, to be interrupted when the Biafrans invaded the de facto neutral terrain of the Midwest Region. As Biafra was now perceived as expansionist, this provoked a violent response from the federal military government who retook the Midwest with ease, escalating the conflict into a full-scale war which resulted in between 1 to 3 million deaths and the reincorporation of Biafran territory into the republic after a victory for the federation.
Following the war, Nigeria became to an extent even more mirred in ethnic strife, as the defeated southeast was now conquered territory for the federal military regime, which changed heads of state twice as Murtala Mohammed staged a bloodless coup against Gowan; Olusegun Obansanjo seceded the former after an assassination. During oil boom of the 1970s Nigeria helped iniate the founding of OPEC and billions of dollars generated by production in the oil-rich
Niger Delta flowed into the coffers of the Nigerian state. However, increasing corruption and graft at all levels of government squandered most of these earnings. As oil production increased, the Nigerian economy and government grew increasingly dependent on the revenue it generated, while the simultaneous drop agricultural production precipitated food shortages.
Nigerians participated in a brief return to democracy beginning in 1979 when Obasanjo transferred power to the civilian regime of
Shehu Shagari. The Shagari government was viewed as corrupt and incompetent by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society, so when the regime was overthrown by the military coup of
Mohammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's fraudulent re-election in 1984, it was generally viewed as a positive development by most of the population. Buhari promised major reforms but his government proved little better than its predecessor, and his regime was overthrown via yet another military coup in 1986.
The new head of state,
Ibrahim Babangida, promptly declared himself
President of Buhari's Supreme Military Council and also set 1990 as the official deadline for a return to democratic governance. Babangida's tenure was marked by a flury of political activity: he instituted the
International Monetary Fund's Structural Adjustment Program to aid in the repayment of the country's crushing international debt, which most federal revenue was dedicated to servicing. He also inflamed religious tensions throughout the nation and particularly the south enrolling Nigeria in the
Organization of the Islamic Conference, while he survived an abortive coup and pushed back the promised return to democracy to 1992. When free and fair elections were finally held in 1993, Babangida declared the results showing a presidential victory for M.K.O. Abiola null and void, sparking mass civilian violence in protest which effectively shut the country down for weeks and forced Babangida to resign.
Babangida's caretaker regime headed by Ernest Shonekan survived only until late 1993 when General
Sani Abacha took power in another military coup. Abacha proved to be perhaps Nigeria's most brutal ruler and employed violence on a wide scale to suppress the continuing pandemic of civilian unrest. The regime of terror would come to an end in 1998 when the dictator was found dead amid dubious circumstances.
Abacha's death finally yielded an opportunity for return to civilian rule and Nigeria elected Olusegun Obasanjo, a
Yoruba and former military head of state, as the its new
president. Although the elections which brought Obasanjo to power in 1999 and again in 2003 were condemned as anything but free and fair, Nigeria has shown marked improvements in attempts to tackle government corruption and to hasten development at all levels. This is despite continuing calls for a Sovereign National Conference to discern the genuine will of the people, which the president has deftly sidestepped for eight years, as well as widespread disputes and ethnic violence over the oil producing land of the
Niger Delta.
Government and politics
Nigeria is a Democratic Republic modelled after the
United States, with executive power exercised by the
president. The president's power is checked by a Senate and a House of Representatives, which are combined in a body called the National Assembly. The current president of Nigeria is
Olusegun Obasanjo who was elected in 1999 following the restoration of democracy after nearly two decades of outright
military dictatorship.
The two major parties in Nigerian politics are the People's Democratic Party of Nigeria and the All Nigeria People's Party.
See also:
- Federal ministers of Nigeria
- Federal Ministries of Nigeria
- Political Parties in Nigeria
- Government of Nigeria
Law
There are four distinct systems of law in Nigeria:
- English Law which is derived from its colonial past with Britain
- common law, a development of its post colonial independence
- customary law which is derived from indigenous traditional norms and practices
- Sharia law, used only in the predominantly Hausa and Muslim north of the country
While there was some controversy with the implementation of Sharia law, the legal systems seemingly work on Muslims. There is a Judicial branch with a Supreme Court which is regarded as the highest court of the land.
Foreign relations and military
Foreign relations
Upon gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria made the liberation and restoration of the dignity of Africa the center piece of its foreign policy. Barely months into its independence, Nigeria was called upon by the
United Nations to contribute troops to quell the secession crisis of the
Katanga province in Congo . This African emancipation focus of Nigeria's foreign policy was tested in the 1970s after Nigeria emerged united from its own civil war. Nigeria quickly committed itself to the liberation struggles going on in the Southern Africa sub-region. Although far away in west Africa, Nigeria declared itself a front-line state in South Africa's struggle for liberation from white minority rule. Though Nigeria never sent an expeditionary force in that struggle, it offered more than rhetoric to the
African National Congress by taking a committed tough line with regard to the racist regime and their incursions in southern Africa. Nigeria vigorously campaigned and eventually succeeded in galvanising a global economic isolation of the racist apartheid regime.
Similarly, in 1975, war broke out in Angola after that country gained independence from Portugal -- perhaps out of suspicion about the true intentions of the racist regime of South Africa, which had backed UNITA rebel forces in Angola. Nigeria, a member of the English
Commonwealth of Nations, mobilised its diplomatic influence in Africa in support of the leftist MPLA Movement for the Popular Liberation of Angola. This support tipped the balance in their favour, which led to
OAU recognition of the MPLA, despite western propagandists labeling it a communist regime due to the Soviet and Cuban support it received via Mobutu's Zaire.
Nigeria extended diplomatic support to another marxist cause,
Sam Nujoma's SWAPO movement in Namibia, to checkmate the apartheidist South African installed puppet government in Namibia. Although officially denied by the Nigerian government,Nigeria is known to have provided secret military training at the Kaduna first mechanised army division and provided other material support to
Joshua Nkomo and
Robert Mugabe's guerilla forces during the
Rhodesian Bush War of independence against white minority rule of Prime Minister
Ian Douglas Smith which was armed and financed up by apartheid regime in South Africa.Although her economy and technology could not have supported it,Nigeria announced to a bewildered international community that she was launching a nuclear program of "unlimited scope" of her own.Perhaps to draw global attention to the much denied and over looked secret nuclear program of the apartheid regime in South Africa. That brilliant diplomatic master stroke brought a heightened focussed global attention on the secret South African nuclear program that eventually led to its dismantling.To demonstrate her seriousness against Multi-national companies in Nigeria that violated the economic/trade embargo on the racist South African regime,the local branch of
Barclays bank was nationalized after that bank ingnored the strong protests by Nigeria urging it not to buy the South African government bond.Nigeria also nationalised the British Petroleum for supplying oil to apartheid South Africa.Prior to that event,Nigeria had never used her oil as a political pressure weapon.Infact,Nigeria was the only OPEC country that continued supplying the United States with oil during the 1970s oil embargo on the US for the arms airlift to Isreal during the Arab-Isreali conflict.In december 1983,the new Major General
Muhammadu Buhari regime announced to the delight and great relief of the increasingly impoverished Nigerian citizens that due to mounting domestic economic problems of her own,Nigeria could no longer afford an activist anti-colonial role in Africa. That policy statement did not deter Nigeria under Generals
Ibrahim Babangida in 1990 and
Sani Abacha in 1997 from sending
ECOMOG Peace keeping forces under the auspices of
ECOWAS into Liberia and later Sierra Leone when fraticidal civil wars broke out in those West African countries. President
Olusegun Obasanjo in August 2003 committed Nigerian troops once again into Liberia to avert a humanitarian disaster as the rebel forces surged into the capital Monrovia.Just the presence of the Nigerian troops in Monrovia pursuaded the rebels on the futility of further pressing their attack to forcefully take the capital city and thus bringing them into direct confrontation path with Africa's largest army.
Charles Taylor was subsequently eased out of power and exiled to Nigeria.In october 2004,Nigerian troops again deployed into
Darfur Sudan to spearhead an AU force to stop the genocide in Darfur. Nigeria has maintained improved international relations following transition to a more democratic government in 1999, which ended the regime of an internationally scorned dictatorship. Since the return of democracy in 1999,Nigeria have skillfully nutured an improved relationship with the
United States,strenghtened her historical friendship with
United Kingdom and the other western countries while retaining her independence of opinion especially in African affairs so as not to lose credibility in Africa. Nigeria has an increasingly developing diplomatic coperation with
China and an advocate of a peaceful "one china" policy in reference to the Taiwan dispute. The nation is a member of the
African Union and sits on that organization's Peace and Security Council. Since 1960, Nigeria has been a member of the
United Nations and also joined the
Commonwealth of Nations the same year, however they were briefly suspended between 1995 and 1999. It currently is the chair of the regional IGO,
Economic Community of West African States or ECOWAS and
ECOMOG, its military arm. Both are presently headquartered in the capital
Abuja. Nigeria was a founding member of the
Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries in the early 1970s, and its status as a major petroleum producer figures prominently in international relations, particularly with developed countries.Nigeria retains her membership of the "non-alligned" nations.
Nigeria is also a member of the
International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the
U.S.-military .
Military of Nigeria
The military of Nigeria has played a major role in the country's history since independence. Various juntas have seized control of the country and ruled it through most of its history. Its last period of rule ended in 1999 following the sudden death of dictator
Sani Abacha in 1998.
Taking advantage of its role of sub-saharan Africa's most populated country, Nigeria has repositioned its military as an African peacekeeping force. Since 1995, the Nigerian military through ECOMOG mandates have been deployed as peacekeepers in
Liberia ,
Ivory Coast ,
Sierra Leone 1997-1999, and presently in
Sudan's
Darfur region under an African Union mandate.
Active duty personnel in the three Nigerian armed services is total approximately 76,000. The Nigerian Army, the largest of the services, has about 60,000 personnel deployed in two mechanized infantry divisions, one composite division , the Lagos Garrison Command , and the Abuja-based Brigade of Guards. It has demonstrated its capability to mobilize, deploy, and sustain battalions in support of peacekeeping operations in
Liberia,
former Yugoslavia,
Angola,
Rwanda,
Somalia, and
Sierra Leone. The Nigerian Navy is equipped with frigates, fast attack craft, corvettes, and coastal patrol boats. The Nigerian Air Force flies transport, trainer, helicopter, and fighter aircraft, but most are currently not operational. Nigeria also has pursued a policy of developing domestic training and military production capabilities. Nigeria has continued a strict policy of diversification in her military procurement from various countries. After the imposition of sanctions by many Western nations, Nigeria turned to the
People's Republic of China,
Russia,
North Korea, and
India for the purchase of military equipment and training.
Administrative divisions
Nigeria is divided into 36 states and one
Federal Capital Territory, which are further sub-divided into 774 local authorities. The plethora of states, of which there were only three at independence, reflect the country's tumultuous history and the difficulties of managing such a heterogenous national entity at all levels of government.
The
states include: Abia, Adamawa, Akwa Ibom,
Anambra,
Bauchi,
Bayelsa,
Benue,
Borno,
Cross River,
Delta,
Ebonyi,
?do,
Ekiti,
En?g?,
Gombe,
Imo,
Jigawa,
Kaduna,
Kano,
Katsina,
Kebbi,
Kogi,
Kwara,
Lagos,
Nassarawa,
Niger,
Ogun,
Ondo,
?sun,
?y?, Plateau,
Rivers,
Sokoto,
Taraba,
Yobe, and
Zamfara.
Cities
Nigeria has dozens of major cities, which play an important role in Nigeria's culture, heritage, and economy.
Lagos is the largest city in Nigeria [i]. ...
- : The former capital, and Nigeria's largest city and commercial centre. Based on its estimated population, it is the most populous city in sub-Saharan Africa and one of the most populous cities in the world.
- Abuja - : Nigeria's current capital and newest city.
- Ibadan - " A Yoruba city, Ibadan is the largest city in Nigeria and also the largest indigenous city in Africa. It is larger than Lagos in geographical size. Known for its local industries including food processing and cigarette manufacturing.
- Kano - : A historical and ancient city in northern Nigeria and an industrial centre.
- Port Harcourt - : As well as being the fourth largest city in Nigeria, Port Harcourt has two of the four oil refineries in Nigeria and is where most oil business transactions take place. This makes it one of the most important cities in Nigeria as oil is the most important commodity and main source of foreign exchange in Nigeria.
- Onitsha - : Major commerical centre and port city of Nigeria. It lies along the Niger River and has long been the gate between eastern and western Nigeria.
- Aba - : One of the biggest commercial centres in Nigeria.
Geography and climate
Located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea, Nigeria has a total area of 356,669 mi² ; of that around 5,000 square miles is water. Its size makes it the world's 32nd-largest country . It is comparable in size to
Venezuela, and is a little more than half the size of the U.S. state of
Alaska. It shares a 2,515-
mile border with Benin, Cameroon, Chad and Niger.
The highest point in Nigeria is Chappal Waddi at 7,936
feet .
Nigeria has a varied landscape. From the Obudu Hills in the southeast through the beaches in the south, the
rainforest, the Lagos estuary and
savanna in the middle and southwest of the country and the
Sahel and the encroaching
Sahara Desert in the extreme north.
Nigeria's main rivers are the
Niger and the
Benue which converge and empty into the
Niger Delta, one of the world's largest river deltas.
Nigeria is also an important centre for
biodiversity. It is widely believed that the areas surrounding
Calabar, Cross River State, contain the world's largest diversity of
butterflies. The
drill monkey is only found in the wild in Southeast Nigeria and neighbouring
Cameroon.
Economy
Years of
military rule, corruption, and mismanagement have hobbled economic activity and output in Nigeria and continue to do so, despite the restoration of democracy and subsequent economic reform. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit and the
World Bank, Nigerian
GDP at
