Negro Rebellion
Encyclopedia
The Negro Rebellion, also known as the Little Race War, the War of 1912, or The Twelve, was an armed conflict in Cuba
, taking place mainly in the eastern region of the island in 1912. The conflict involved the widespread massacre
of Afro-Cuban
s, by the Cuban Army, and an intervention by the United States
military. Both the massacre and the presence of American troops quelled the violence so the unrest and the occupation ended after only a few weeks.
played a central role in the conflict. Under the leadership of Evaristo Estenoz, the party quickly gained the support of a large number Afro-Cubans which annoyed President
José Miguel Gómez
. Conditions in Cuba were poor for the black inhabitants, most of whom were employed in the sugarcane
industry. Estenoz led a movement to better the conditions which first started the unsuccessful War of 1895
. In 1912 the Independent Party of Color had regrouped to stage another armed rebellion. In early 1912, affairs in Cuba showed signs of unrest among the Negroes so the American government sent a detachment of 688 officers and enlisted marines to Guantanamo Naval Base. The force was under the command of Major
George C. Thorpe
and originally intended to be used against rebels in Mexico
, it arrived at Guantanamo Bay on March 13. Meanwhile, Estenoz and his followers were preparing to wage war. Though they were lightly armed, the rebels numbered several hundred men, mainly peasant
s.
. Initially the rebels were successful in engaging the Cuban forces, which included soldiers and militia
, so on May 23 President Gomez requested aid from President
William H. Taft, who approved the idea, according to the Platt Amendment
. Additional marines were called for, the first detachment arrived on May 28, landing at Deer Point, Guantanamo Bay, to link up with Major's Thorpe's battalion. Colonel
Lincoln Karmany was in command of this new force, designated the 1st Provisional Regiment of Marines, it numbered thirty-two officers and 777 enlisted men.
The 2nd Provisional Regiment of Marines was also enroute, under Colonel James E. Mahoney, the 2nd Regiment included 1,292 officers and men. They first sailed to Key West
, aboard ten United States Navy
battleship
s from the Atlantic Fleet
. After receiving instructions, most of the fleet headed for Guantanamo Bay, arriving on June 7, while one battalion was landed at Havana
, on June 10. USS Mississippi
landed her detachment at El Cuero on June 19. Of the 1,292 men who landed at Guantanamo, only one battalion would be deployed, Colonel Karmany took command of all the unassigned troops. Together, the American forces in Cuba totaled 2,789 officers and men and were organized into the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade
, about half of which were sent to occupy various towns and cities in eastern Cuba, the rest remained at the naval base. June saw Estenoz rapidly losing contol of his territory to the Cuban military, which was dispersing large bands of the rebels, as well as innocents. Rebel forces numbered at least 3,000 men but by June there was an estimated 1,800 left, the rest having been killed. The marines were not involved in any of the fighting though, they were assigned to protect the American owned sugarcane plantation
s and their associated properties, as well as copper
mine
s, railroads and trains. The Afro-Cubans had opportunities to attack the marines but they never did. President Gomez offered amnesty to any of the rebels who surrendered by June 22 but Estenoz refused and he continued to fight with a few hundred men. Most of the rebels did surrender though and by the end of June the majority had returned to their homes. The turning point in the war was when Estenoz was killed by government forces at Miraca on June 27.
on August 2 and sailed for New England
. For the Afro-Cubans, they lost between 3,000 to 6,000 killed, both combatants and non-combatants, and the results of the rebellion were disastrous, conditions in Cuba largely remained the same after 1912, except for the Independent Party of Color, which was dissolved
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
, taking place mainly in the eastern region of the island in 1912. The conflict involved the widespread massacre
Massacre
A massacre is an event with a heavy death toll.Massacre may also refer to:-Entertainment:*Massacre , a DC Comics villain*Massacre , a 1932 drama film starring Richard Barthelmess*Massacre, a 1956 Western starring Dane Clark...
of Afro-Cuban
Afro-Cuban
The term Afro-Cuban refers to Cubans of Sub Saharan African ancestry, and to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community...
s, by the Cuban Army, and an intervention by the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
military. Both the massacre and the presence of American troops quelled the violence so the unrest and the occupation ended after only a few weeks.
Background
The Independent Party of ColorPartido Independiente de Color
The Partido Independiente de Color was a Cuban political party composed almost entirely of African former slaves. It was founded in 1908 by African veterans of the Cuban War of Independence. In 1912, the PIC led a revolt in the eastern province of Oriente. The revolt was crushed and the party...
played a central role in the conflict. Under the leadership of Evaristo Estenoz, the party quickly gained the support of a large number Afro-Cubans which annoyed President
President of Cuba
--209.174.31.28 18:43, 22 November 2011 The President of Cuba is the Head of state of Cuba. According to the Cuban Constitution of 1976, the President is the chief executive of the Council of State of Cuba...
José Miguel Gómez
José Miguel Gómez
José Miguel Gómez y Gómez was a Cuban General in the Cuban War of Independence who went on to become President of Cuba.-Early career:...
. Conditions in Cuba were poor for the black inhabitants, most of whom were employed in the sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane refers to any of six to 37 species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to the warm temperate to tropical regions of South Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six metres tall...
industry. Estenoz led a movement to better the conditions which first started the unsuccessful War of 1895
Cuban War of Independence
Cuban War of Independence was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Ten Years' War and the Little War...
. In 1912 the Independent Party of Color had regrouped to stage another armed rebellion. In early 1912, affairs in Cuba showed signs of unrest among the Negroes so the American government sent a detachment of 688 officers and enlisted marines to Guantanamo Naval Base. The force was under the command of Major
Major
Major is a rank of commissioned officer, with corresponding ranks existing in almost every military in the world.When used unhyphenated, in conjunction with no other indicator of rank, the term refers to the rank just senior to that of an Army captain and just below the rank of lieutenant colonel. ...
George C. Thorpe
George C. Thorpe
George Cyrus Thorpe was an American officer serving in the United States Marine Corps during the Spanish-American War who was one of 23 Marine Corps officers approved to receive the Marine Corps Brevet Medal for bravery...
and originally intended to be used against rebels in Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
, it arrived at Guantanamo Bay on March 13. Meanwhile, Estenoz and his followers were preparing to wage war. Though they were lightly armed, the rebels numbered several hundred men, mainly peasant
Peasant
A peasant is an agricultural worker who generally tend to be poor and homeless-Etymology:The word is derived from 15th century French païsant meaning one from the pays, or countryside, ultimately from the Latin pagus, or outlying administrative district.- Position in society :Peasants typically...
s.
Estenoz's rebellion
On May 20, Estenoz and his men confronted the Cuban Army. Fighting took place mainly in Oriente Province while there were also a few minor outbreaks of violence in the west, particularly in Las Villas ProvinceVilla Clara Province
Villa Clara is one of the provinces of Cuba. It is located in the central region of the island bordering with the Atlantic at north, Matanzas Province by west, Sancti Spiritus by east, and Cienfuegos on the South. Villa Clara shares with Cienfuegos and Sancti Spiritus on the south the Escambray...
. Initially the rebels were successful in engaging the Cuban forces, which included soldiers and militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
, so on May 23 President Gomez requested aid from President
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
William H. Taft, who approved the idea, according to the Platt Amendment
Platt Amendment
The Platt Amendment of 1901 was a rider appended to the Army Appropriations Act presented to the U.S. Senate by Connecticut Republican Senator Orville H. Platt replacing the earlier Teller Amendment. Approved on May 22, 1903, it stipulated the conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops...
. Additional marines were called for, the first detachment arrived on May 28, landing at Deer Point, Guantanamo Bay, to link up with Major's Thorpe's battalion. Colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
Lincoln Karmany was in command of this new force, designated the 1st Provisional Regiment of Marines, it numbered thirty-two officers and 777 enlisted men.
The 2nd Provisional Regiment of Marines was also enroute, under Colonel James E. Mahoney, the 2nd Regiment included 1,292 officers and men. They first sailed to Key West
Key West
Key West is an island in the Straits of Florida on the North American continent at the southernmost tip of the Florida Keys. Key West is home to the southernmost point in the Continental United States; the island is about from Cuba....
, aboard ten United States Navy
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
battleship
Battleship
A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of heavy caliber guns. Battleships were larger, better armed and armored than cruisers and destroyers. As the largest armed ships in a fleet, battleships were used to attain command of the sea and represented the apex of a...
s from the Atlantic Fleet
United States Fleet Forces Command
The United States Fleet Forces Command is an Atlantic Ocean theater-level component command of the United States Navy that provides naval resources that are under the operational control of the United States Northern Command...
. After receiving instructions, most of the fleet headed for Guantanamo Bay, arriving on June 7, while one battalion was landed at Havana
Havana
Havana is the capital city, province, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba. The city proper has a population of 2.1 million inhabitants, and it spans a total of — making it the largest city in the Caribbean region, and the most populous...
, on June 10. USS Mississippi
USS Mississippi (BB-23)
USS Mississippi , the lead ship of her class of battleships, was the second ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the U.S. state of Mississippi. After her career in the USN, she was sold to Greece and renamed Kilkis in 1914...
landed her detachment at El Cuero on June 19. Of the 1,292 men who landed at Guantanamo, only one battalion would be deployed, Colonel Karmany took command of all the unassigned troops. Together, the American forces in Cuba totaled 2,789 officers and men and were organized into the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade
1st Provisional Marine Brigade
The 1st Provisional Marine Brigade was a Marine infantry brigade of the United States Marine Corps that existed periodically from 1912 to 1950. It was an ad hoc unit formed for specific operations and therefore not considered a "permanent" USMC unit....
, about half of which were sent to occupy various towns and cities in eastern Cuba, the rest remained at the naval base. June saw Estenoz rapidly losing contol of his territory to the Cuban military, which was dispersing large bands of the rebels, as well as innocents. Rebel forces numbered at least 3,000 men but by June there was an estimated 1,800 left, the rest having been killed. The marines were not involved in any of the fighting though, they were assigned to protect the American owned sugarcane plantation
Plantation
A plantation is a long artificially established forest, farm or estate, where crops are grown for sale, often in distant markets rather than for local on-site consumption...
s and their associated properties, as well as copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
mine
Mine
Mine or mines can refer to:* Land mine, an anti-tank and anti-personnel weapon* Naval mine, an explosive device placed in water to destroy ships or submarines* Mining, extraction of mineral resources from the groundMine can also refer to:...
s, railroads and trains. The Afro-Cubans had opportunities to attack the marines but they never did. President Gomez offered amnesty to any of the rebels who surrendered by June 22 but Estenoz refused and he continued to fight with a few hundred men. Most of the rebels did surrender though and by the end of June the majority had returned to their homes. The turning point in the war was when Estenoz was killed by government forces at Miraca on June 27.
Government victory
Estenoz's death resulted in the splintering of the rebel army into small factions which were all eventually defeated. The most important was that of Ivonnet Peter who took his men into the mountains to wage a guerilla war, however, he was driven out by the mid July. Soon after Peter's surrender, Gomez announced that the American marines were no longer needed so they began to withdraw, first to the naval base at Guantanamo, and then to stations in the United States. The last marines to leave Cuba embarked USS PrairieUSS Prairie (AD-5)
USS Prairie , formerly Morgan Liner S.S. El Sol, was built in 1890 by William Cramp and Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She was purchased by the United States Navy on April 6, 1898 from the Southern Pacific Co., and commissioned two days later at New York, Comdr. C. J...
on August 2 and sailed for New England
New England
New England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut...
. For the Afro-Cubans, they lost between 3,000 to 6,000 killed, both combatants and non-combatants, and the results of the rebellion were disastrous, conditions in Cuba largely remained the same after 1912, except for the Independent Party of Color, which was dissolved