Gaius Musonius Rufus, was a Roman
StoicSTOIC was a variant of Forth.It started out at the MIT and Harvard Biomedical Engineering Centre in Boston, and was written in the mid 1970s by Jonathan Sachs...
philosopher of the 1st century AD. He taught philosophy in
RomeRome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated municipality , with over 2.7 million residents in , while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 3.46 million. The metropolitan area of Rome is estimated by OECD to have a population of 3.7 million...
during the reign of
NeroNero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne...
, as consequence of which he was sent into exile in 65 AD, only returning to Rome under
GalbaServius Sulpicius Galba , also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor for seven months, from 8 June 68 until his murder...
. He was allowed to stay in Rome when
VespasianTitus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD...
banished all the other philosophers from the city in 71 AD, although he was eventually banished anyway, only returning after Vespasian's death. A collection of extracts of his lectures still survive. He is also remembered for being the teacher of
EpictetusEpictetus was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was probably born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until his exile to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece, where he lived most of his life and died. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
.
Life
The son of a Roman eques of the name of Capito, Musonius Rufus was born in
VolsiniiVolsinii or Vulsinii , is the name of two ancient cities of Etruria, one situated on the shore of Lacus Volsiniensis , and the other on the Via Clodia, between Clusium and Forum Cassii...
,
EtruriaEtruria — usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia — was a region of Central Italy, an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium, Emilia-Romagna and Umbria. A particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H...
about 20-30 AD. He was already famous in
RomeRome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated municipality , with over 2.7 million residents in , while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 3.46 million. The metropolitan area of Rome is estimated by OECD to have a population of 3.7 million...
by the time of Nero, where he taught
StoicSTOIC was a variant of Forth.It started out at the MIT and Harvard Biomedical Engineering Centre in Boston, and was written in the mid 1970s by Jonathan Sachs...
philosophy. He followed
Rubellius PlautusGaius Rubellius Plautus was a Roman noble and a political rival of Emperor Nero. Through his mother Julia, he was a relative to the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was the grandson of Drusus , and the great-grandson of Tiberius and his brother Drusus...
into exile when Plautus was banished by Nero (60 AD). He returned to Rome after Plautus' death (62 AD), but as a consequence of his practising and teaching
StoicismStoicism was a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The stoics considered destructive emotions to be the result of errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual perfection," would not undergo such emotions...
, he became an object of suspicion and dislike at
NeroNero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne...
's court, and was accordingly banished to the island of
GyarusGyarus, also called Gyaros, is a small Greek island in the Cyclades, a Greek island group in the Aegean Sea located south-east of the mainland of Greece. During the Roman Empire, it was most famous as a destination for exiles, many of them political offenders...
(65 AD) on a trumped-up charge of participation in
PisoGaius Calpurnius Piso was a Roman senator in the 1st century. He was the focal figure in the Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 A.D., the most famous and wide-ranging plot against the throne of Emperor Nero.-Character and early life:...
's conspiracy. He returned under
GalbaServius Sulpicius Galba , also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor for seven months, from 8 June 68 until his murder...
(68 AD). When
Marcus Antonius PrimusMarcus Antonius Primus was a Roman Empire general.Primus was born at Tolosa in Gaul. During the reign of Nero, he was resident in Rome and a member of the Senate, from which he was expelled for forgery in connection with a will and was banished from the city...
, the general of
VespasianTitus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD...
, was marching upon
RomeRome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated municipality , with over 2.7 million residents in , while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 3.46 million. The metropolitan area of Rome is estimated by OECD to have a population of 3.7 million...
(69 AD), he joined the ambassadors that were sent by
VitelliusAulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 16 April 69 to 22 December of the same year...
to the victorious general, and going among the soldiers of the latter, preached about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war, but was soon made to stop. When the party of Vitellius gained the upper hand, Musonius was able to accuse, and obtain the conviction of,
Publius Egnatius CelerPublius Egnatius Celer, , was a Stoic philosopher, who as a result of being an informer in the reign of Nero, was sentenced to death in the reign of Vespasian....
, the Stoic philosopher who had condemned
Barea SoranusQuintus Marcius Barea Soranus was a Roman Senator in the 1st century. Soranus was from the gens Marcius. He was the son of Quintus Marcius Barea, who was Suffect Consul in 26 and was twice Proconsul of the Africa Province. Barea during his time in Africa was based in Leptis Magna...
. It was perhaps about this time that Musonius taught
EpictetusEpictetus was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was probably born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until his exile to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece, where he lived most of his life and died. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
, his most famous student. So highly was Musonius esteemed in Rome that Vespasian allowed him to remain in Rome when the other philosophers were banished from the city (71 AD), but eventually he was exiled anyway (perhaps around 75 AD), only returning after Vespasian's death (79 AD). As to his death, we know only that he was dead by 101 AD, when
PlinyGaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo , better known as Pliny the Younger, was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome...
speaks of his son-in-law Artemidorus.
Writings
The
SudaThe Suda or Souda is a massive 10th century historical encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly wrongfully attributed to an author called Suidas. The text belongs to the Byzantine Empire and was written in Greek...
states that there are "speeches about philosophy bearing his name," and mentions letters to
Apollonius of TyanaApollonius of Tyana was a Greek Neopythagorean philosopher and teacher. He hailed from the town of Tyana in the Roman province of Cappadocia in Asia Minor. A contemporary of Jesus of Nazareth, the life and wandering mission of Apollonius is often compared to his.After his lifetime, Apollonius'...
. The letters that survive are certainly not authentic. It is unknown whether Musonius wrote anything for publication. His philosophical opinions were collected by two of his students. One collection of
Discourses, by a certain Lucius, form the basis of the 21 lengthy extracts preserved by
StobaeusJoannes Stobaeus , so called from his native place Stobi in North Macedonia , was the compiler of a valuable series of extracts from Greek authors.-Biography and works:...
. A second collection was compiled by one Pollio, it has been lost, but some fragments of it survive in quotations by later writers.
The titles of the 21 discourses (Cora Lutz edition) are as follows:
- That There is No Need of Giving Many Proofs for One Problem
- That Man is Born with an Inclination Toward Virtue
- That Women Too Should Study Philosophy
- Should Daughters Receive the Same Education as Sons?
- Which is more Effective, Theory or Practice?
- On Training
- That One Should Disdain Hardships
- That Kings Also Should Study Philosophy
- That Exile is not an Evil
- Will the Philosopher Prosecute Anyone for Personal Injury?
- What means of Livelihood is Appropriate for a Philosopher?
- On Sexual Indulgence
- What is the Chief End of Marriage
- Is Marriage a Handicap for the Pursuit of Philosophy?
- Should Every Child that is Born be Raised?
- Must One Obey One's Parents under all Circumstances?
- What is the Best Viaticum for Old Age?
- On Food
- On Clothing and Shelter
- On Furnishings
- On Cutting the Hair
Philosophy
His philosophy, which is in many respects identical with that of his pupil,
EpictetusEpictetus was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was probably born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until his exile to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece, where he lived most of his life and died. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Philosophy, which he wanted everyone to cultivate, is not a mere matter of words, of instruction, or of the school; but everyone by their own reflection and practice may pursue for themselves. He considers it becoming in a philosopher to wear the philosopher's robe, to allow the
hairHair is a protein filament that grows through the epidermis from follicles deep within the dermis. The fine, soft hair found on many nonhuman mammals is typically called fur; wool is the characteristically curly hair found on sheep and goats. Found exclusively in mammals, hair is one of the...
to grow, and to retire from society. At the same time he is convinced of the power of philosophy over the minds of people; by it he hopes to heal all the corruption of the human mind. His philosophy consists entirely of the rules for the conduct of life; all knowledge ought to be serviceable to action. He does not reject
logicLogic, from the Greek λογική is the art and science of reasoning. More specifically, it is defined by the Penguin Encyclopedia to be "The formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning". As a discipline, logic dates back to Aristotle, who established its...
: he regards it as a proof of a weak mind to decline to examine the
fallacyIn logic and rhetoric, a fallacy is a misconception resulting from incorrect reasoning in argumentation. By accident or design, fallacies may exploit emotional triggers in the listener or interlocutor , or take advantage of social relationships between people...
which perplexes it; yet at the same time he expresses his disgust at the multitude of dogmas which fed the vanity of the sophists. He gives only a little attention to the
physical doctrinesStoic physics refers to the natural philosophy adopted by the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece and Rome used to explain the natural processes at work in the universe. To the Stoics the universe is a single pantheistic God, but one which is also a material substance. The primitive substance of...
of the Stoics; he asserts that the gods know all things without need of reasoning, since to them nothing can be obscure or unknown. The human
soulThe soul, in many religions, spiritual traditions, and philosophies, is the spiritual and eternal part of a living being, commonly held to be separable in existence from the body; distinct from the physical part. It is typically thought to consist of ones consciousness and personality, and can be...
he considers to be akin to the gods, and agrees with other Stoics that the soul is material, which after being corrupted by bodily influence, may be again purified and cleansed. The liberty of the rational soul is strongly asserted by him.
Musonius pays much more attention to
ethicsEthics is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality, such as what the fundamental semantic, ontological, and epistemic nature of ethics or morality is , how moral values should be determined , how a moral outcome can be achieved in specific situations , how moral...
than logic or physics; for he holds that philosophy is nothing else than an investigation and practice of what is becoming and obligatory; and philosophy, he says, is merely the pursuit of a virtuous life. He requires that all people, both men and woman should cultivate philosophy as the only sure road to virtue. He agrees that it is easy to follow one's own nature, and the only great impediment which he can find to a truly moral life is the prejudices with which the
mindMind is the aspect of intellect and consciousness experienced as combinations of thought, perception, memory, emotion, will and imagination, including all unconscious cognitive processes. The term is often used to refer, by implication, to the thought processes of reason. Mind manifests itself...
is filled from
childhoodChildhood is a broad term usually applied to the phase of development in humans between infancy and adulthood.-Age definition of a child:...
, and the evil habits confirmed by practices. Thus he regards philosophy as the mental art of healing, and lays great stress on the practice of virtue, preferring practice to precept. He distinguishes two kinds of practice: the exercise of the mind in reflection and the adoption of good rules in life, and the endurance of bodily pains which affect both the soul and the body.
A life lived according to nature consists in social, friendly sentiments and temper, and in contentment with what will simply alleviate the primary needs of nature. He combats all
selfishnessSelfishness denotes the precedence given in thought or deed to the self, i.e., self interest or self concern. It is the act of placing one's own needs or desires above the needs or desires of others....
, and regards
marriageMarriage is a social union or legal contract between individuals that creates kinship. It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged by a variety of ways, depending on the culture or demographic...
not merely as becoming and natural, but as the principle of the family and state, and the preservation of the whole
human raceThe Human Race could be:* The Human species; see also World population* The Human Race , a comic book published by DC Comics* Human Race , a video game*The Human Race, 79th episode of YuYu Hakusho...
. He zealously protests against the
exposure of childrenInfanticide is the practice of someone intentionally killing an infant. Often it is the mother who commits the act, but criminology recognizes various forms of non-maternal child murder. In many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered permissible...
as an unnatural custom, and at every opportunity recommends the practice of
benevolenceBenevolence is the expression of kindness and altruism.
Benevolence means much good for others. As such, it is a form of love. But some theologians, such as Thomas Jay Oord, have argued that love involves both giving and receiving...
. His precepts for the simple life are carefully detailed, and he gives precise regulations for
dietIn nutrition, the diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. Dietary habits are the habitual decisions an individual or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat. Although humans are omnivores, each culture holds some food preferences and some food taboos. Individual...
, the care of the body,
clothingA feature of nearly all modern human societies is the wearing of clothing or clothes, a category encompassing a wide variety of materials that cover the body....
, and even
furnitureFurniture is the mass noun for the movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating and sleeping in beds, to hold objects at a convenient height for work using horizontal surfaces above the ground, or to store things...
. Thus he recommends that the hair should be allowed to grow long and not cut too close; and he honours the
beardA beard is the hair that grows on a person's chin, cheeks, neck, and the area above the upper lip. Typically, only males going through puberty, or post-pubescent males are able to grow beards. However, women with hirsutism may develop a beard...
on the basis that the hair was provided by nature for covering the body. He forbids meat, and prefers food which is furnished and offered by nature to that which requires the art of cooking.
Musonius Rufus expressed a progressive view of the role of women in philosophy, arguing that because men's and women's capacity to understand virtue was the same, both should be trained in philosophy.
Further reading
- Cora Lutz, (1942), Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates. Yale University Press.
- J. T. Dillon, (2004), Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life: A Model of Teaching and Living Virtue. University Press of America. ISBN 0-761-82902-4
External links