Ṣadr ad-Dīn Muḥammad Shīrāzī also called
Mulla Sadrā (c. 1571–1636) was a
PersianIranian philosophy or Persian philosophy can be traced back as far as to Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian roots and were considerably influenced by Zarathustra's teachings. According to Oxford dictionary of philosophy , the choronology of...
Shia
Islamic philosopherIslamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between philosophy and the religious teachings of Islam .-Definition:...
,
theologianKalām is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic the word means "words, discussion, discourse". A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim...
and
‘ĀlimUlema refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. They are best known as the arbiters of shari‘a law...
who led the
IranIran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran is a country in Western Asia. The name Iran has been in use natively since the Sassanid period and came into international use from 1935, before which the country was known internationally as Persia...
ian cultural renaissance in the 17th century.
Mulla Sadra is arguably the single most important and influential philosopher in the Muslim world in the last four hundred years.
The foremost representative of the Illuminationist, or (Ishraghi or
IshraqiIlluminationist philosophy is an Iranian philosophy and Islamic philosophy first developed by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi , the famous Persian philosopher....
) school of philosopher-mystics, he is commonly regarded by Iranians as the greatest philosopher their country has ever produced. His school of philosophy is called
Transcendent TheosophyTranscendent theosophy or al-hikmat al-muta’li , the doctrine and philosophy that has been developed and perfected by the Persian philosopher, Mulla Sadra, is one of two main disciplines of Islamic philosophy that is very live and active even today.The expression al-hikmat al-muta’liyah comprises...
or
al-hikmah al-muta’liyah.
Mulla Sadra's philosophy and
ontologyOntology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations...
is considered to be just as important to
Islamic philosophyIslamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between philosophy and the religious teachings of Islam .-Definition:...
as
Martin HeideggerMartin Heidegger was an influential German philosopher. His best known book, Being and Time, is considered to be one of the most important philosophical works of the 20th century...
's philosophy later was to
Western philosophyWestern philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies and the varieties of indigenous philosophies....
in the 20th century. Mulla Sadra bought "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of
realityReality, in everyday usage, means "the state of things as they actually exist." Literally, the term denotes what is real; in its widest sense, this includes everything that is, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible. Reality in this sense includes being and sometimes is considered to...
" and created "a major transition from
essentialismIn philosophy, essentialism is the view that, for any specific kind of entity, there is a set of characteristics or properties all of which any entity of that kind must possess, and therefore all things can be precisely defined or described...
to
existentialismLike “rationalism” and “empiricism,” “existentialism” is a term that belongs to intellectual history. Its definition is thus to some extent one of historical convenience...
" in Islamic philosophy, several centuries before this occurred in Western philosophy.
Mulla Sadra's original philosophy blended and transformed
AvicennismAvicennism is a school of early Persian Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. The school was founded by Avicenna , an 11th-century Persian philosopher who attempted to redefine the course of Islamic philosophy and channel it into new directions...
,
SuhrawardiOther important Muslim mystics carry the name Suhrawardi, particularly Abu 'l-Najib al-Suhrawardi and his paternal nephew Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi."Shahāb ad-Dīn" Yaḥyá ibn Ḥabash as-Suhrawardī was an Iranic...
's
Illuminationist philosophyIlluminationist philosophy is an Iranian philosophy and Islamic philosophy first developed by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi , the famous Persian philosopher....
,
Ibn ArabiIbn 'Arabī was an Andalusian Arab Sufi mystic and philosopher. His full name was Abū 'Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn 'Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn al-`Arabī al-Hāṭimī al-Ṭā'ī .-Biography:...
's Sufi metaphysics, and the
theologyKalām is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic the word means "words, discussion, discourse". A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim...
of the
Ash'ariThe Ashʿari theology is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari...
school and Twelvers in a more ambitious and resourceful way than the former
Islamic philosophersIslamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between philosophy and the religious teachings of Islam .-Definition:...
.
Biography
Born in
ShirazShiraz may refer to:* Shiraz, Iran, a city* Vosketap, Armenia, formerly called ShirazPeople:* Hovhannes Shiraz, Armenian poet* Shiraz Ali, former Bermudian cricketer* Shiraz Minwalla, Indian string theorist...
, Iran to a notable Shirazi family, Mulla Sadra moved first to
QazvinQazvin is the largest city and capital of the Province of Qazvin in Iran with an estimated population of 331,409 in 2005...
in 1591 and then to Isfahan 1597 to pursue his inquiry into philosophy, theology, Hadith, and hermeneutics. Those cities were successive capitals of the
Safavid dynastyThe Safavids were one of the ruling dynasties of Iran. They ruled one of the greatest Iranian empires since the Islamic conquest of Persia and established the Ithnāˤashari school of Shi'a Islam as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in the...
and center of Twelver seminaries at that time. His renowned teachers were
Mir DamadMir Damad , known also as Mir Mohammad Baqer Esterabadi, or Asterabadi, was an Iranian philosopher in the Neoplatonizing Islamic Peripatetic traditions of Avicenna and Suhrawardi, a scholar of the traditional Islamic sciences, and foremost figure , of the cultural renaissance of Iran undertaken...
and
Baha' ad-Din al-`AmiliShaykh Baha' ad-Din al-`Amili, Shaykh Bahai or Sheykh Bahaee was an a Iranian Muslim scholar, philosopher, architect, mathematician, astronomer and poet. He was born in Baalbek, Lebanon but immigrated in his childhood to Safavid Iran with his father. He wrote over 88 books in different topics...
.
Mulla Sadra completed his education at
IsfahanIsfahan or Esfahan , historically also rendered in English as Ispahan or Hispahan, is located about 340 km south of Tehran and is the capital of Isfahan Province and Iran's third largest city...
, which was the leading cultural and intellectual center of his day. He was trained under the supervision of
Mir DamadMir Damad , known also as Mir Mohammad Baqer Esterabadi, or Asterabadi, was an Iranian philosopher in the Neoplatonizing Islamic Peripatetic traditions of Avicenna and Suhrawardi, a scholar of the traditional Islamic sciences, and foremost figure , of the cultural renaissance of Iran undertaken...
.
After his studies with scholars there, he produced several works, the most famous of which was his
Asfar ("Journeys").
Asfar contains the bulk of his philosophy, which was influenced by a personal mysticism bordering on the ascetic, that he experienced during a fifteen-year retreat at Kahak, a village near
QomQom is a city in Iran. It lies by road southwest of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province. It has an estimated population of 1,042,309 in 2005...
, Iran.
Expounding his theory of nature, Mulla Sadra argued that the entire universe – except God and his knowledge – was originated both eternally and temporally. Nature, he asserted, is the substance of all things and is the cause for all movement. Thus, nature is permanent and furnishes the continuing link between the eternal and the originated. Much of his philosophy was also
existentialistLike “rationalism” and “empiricism,” “existentialism” is a term that belongs to intellectual history. Its definition is thus to some extent one of historical convenience...
in nature.
Toward the end of his life, Mulla Sadra returned to Shiraz to teach. His teachings however, were considered heretical by orthodox Twelver theologians such as Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, who persecuted him, though his powerful family connections permitted him to continue to write. He died in
BasraAl-Baṣrah is the capital of Basra Province, and had an estimated population of 3,800,200 as of 2009. Basra is also Iraq's main port, although it is incapable of deep water access, which is handled at the the port of Umm Qasr...
on a pilgrimage to
MeccaMecca , sometimes spelled Makkah is the holiest meeting site of the Islamic religion. The city is modern, cosmopolitan and whilst being closed to non-Muslims is nonetheless ethnically diverse.Islamic tradition attributes the beginning of Mecca to Ishmael's descendants...
and was buried in present-day
IraqIraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , also known as Mesopotamia, is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.Iraq shares borders with Jordan to the west, Syria...
.
Philosophical theories
Sadra is said to have been a "true heir" of
Shahab al-Din SuhrawardiOther important Muslim mystics carry the name Suhrawardi, particularly Abu 'l-Najib al-Suhrawardi and his paternal nephew Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi."Shahāb ad-Dīn" Yaḥyá ibn Ḥabash as-Suhrawardī was an Iranic...
's School of Illumination, whose ideas he said to have "revised and presented in a rigorous scholastic fashion."
Existentialism
ExistentialismLike “rationalism” and “empiricism,” “existentialism” is a term that belongs to intellectual history. Its definition is thus to some extent one of historical convenience...
is a concept that lies at the heart of Mulla Sadra's philosophy, particularly the theory of "
existence precedes essenceThe proposition that existence precedes essence is a central claim of existentialism, which reverses the traditional philosophical view that the essence or nature of a thing is more fundamental and immutable than its existence...
". This was also the opposite of the idea of "
essenceIn philosophy, essence is the attribute or set of attributes that make an object or substance what it fundamentally is, and which it has by necessity, and without which it loses its identity. Essence is contrasted with accident: a property that the object or substance has contingently, without...
precedes
existenceExistence can be defined as simply being or continuing in time.In common usage, existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses, but in philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning, and is often contrasted with essence...
" previously supported by
Avicenna, known as Abū Alī Sīnā or Ibn Sīnā , and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna , was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time...
and his school of
AvicennismAvicennism is a school of early Persian Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. The school was founded by Avicenna , an 11th-century Persian philosopher who attempted to redefine the course of Islamic philosophy and channel it into new directions...
as well as
Shahab al-Din SuhrawardiOther important Muslim mystics carry the name Suhrawardi, particularly Abu 'l-Najib al-Suhrawardi and his paternal nephew Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi."Shahāb ad-Dīn" Yaḥyá ibn Ḥabash as-Suhrawardī was an Iranic...
and his school of
IlluminationismIlluminationist philosophy is an Iranian philosophy and Islamic philosophy first developed by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi , the famous Persian philosopher....
. Sayyid Jalal Ashtiyani later summarizes Mulla Sadra's concept as follows:
For Mulla Sadra, "existence precedes the essence and is thus principal since something has to exist first and then have an essence." This is primarily the argument that lies at the heart of Mulla Sadra's philosophy.
In
Islamic philosophyIslamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between philosophy and the religious teachings of Islam .-Definition:...
, whereas previous methods of philosophical thought held that "essence precedes existence", a concept which dates back to
Avicenna, known as Abū Alī Sīnā or Ibn Sīnā , and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna , was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time...
and
Shahab al-Din SuhrawardiOther important Muslim mystics carry the name Suhrawardi, particularly Abu 'l-Najib al-Suhrawardi and his paternal nephew Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi."Shahāb ad-Dīn" Yaḥyá ibn Ḥabash as-Suhrawardī was an Iranic...
, Mulla Sadra substituted a
metaphysicsMetaphysics investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world...
of existence for the traditional metaphysics of essences, and giving priority
ab initioThe Latin term ab initio means from the beginning and is used in several contexts:* Marriages annulled under the Catholic Church are considered as ab initio, meaning that the marriage was invalid from the beginning...
to existence over
quiddityIn scholastic philosophy, quiddity was another term for the essence of an object, literally its "whatness," or "what it is." The term derives from the Latin word "quidditas," which was used by the medieval Scholastics as a literal translation of the equivalent term in Aristotle's Greek.It...
.
Mulla Sadra effected an entire revolution in the metaphysics of being by his thesis that there are no immutable essences, but that each essence is determined and variable according to the degree of intensity of its act of existence.
In his view reality is existence, differentiated in a variety of ways, and these different ways look to us like essences. What first affect us are things that exist and we form ideas of essences afterwards, so existence precedes essence. This position referred to as primacy of existence .
Substantial motion
Another central concept of Mulla Sadra's philosophy is the theory of "
substantialSubstance theory, or substance attribute theory, is an ontological theory about objecthood, positing that a substance is distinct from its properties. This is part of essentialism in that ousia as a substance can also be a descriptor of an object's being and/or nature...
motionIn physics, motion means a change in the location of a body. Change in motion is the result of applied force. Motion is typically described in terms of velocity, acceleration, displacement, and time. An object's velocity cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described by Newton's...
" (Arabic:
al-harakat al-jawhariyyah), which is "based on the premise that everything in the order of
natureNature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical world, or material world. "Nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general...
, including
celestial spheresThe celestial spheres, or celestial orbs, were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus and others...
, undergoes substantial change and transformation as a result of the self-
flowFlow is the mental state of operation in which the person is fully immersed in what he or she is doing by a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and success in the process of the activity. Proposed by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, the positive psychology concept has been widely referenced...
(
fayd) and penetration of
beingBeing is the object of study of metaphysics, and more specifically ontology. In its most indeterminate sense, being could be understood as anything that can be said to be, which is opposed to nonexistence...
(
sarayan al-wujud) which gives every concrete individual entity its share of being. In contrast to
AristotleAristotle was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.Together with Plato and Socrates , Aristotle is one of...
and
Ibn Sina, known as Abū Alī Sīnā or Ibn Sīnā , and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna , was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time...
who had accepted
changeChange can mean:* The process of becoming different:** Social change** Biological metamorphosis** The mathematical study of change* Small denominations of money given in exchange for a larger denominationChange may also refer to:...
only in four
categoriesCategorization is the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated and understood. Categorization implies that objects are grouped into categories, usually for some specific purpose. Ideally, a category illuminates a relationship between the subjects and objects of knowledge...
, i.e.,
quantityQuantity is a kind of property which exists as magnitude or multitude. It is among the basic classes of things along with quality, substance, change, and relation. Quantity was first introduced as quantum, an entity having quantity. Being a fundamental term, quantity is used to refer to any type of...
(
kamm),
qualityA quality is an attribute or a property. Attributes are ascribable, by a subject, whereas properties are possessible. Some philosophers assert that a quality cannot be defined...
(
kayf), position (
wad’) and place (
‘ayn), Sadra defines change as an all-pervasive
realityReality, in everyday usage, means "the state of things as they actually exist." Literally, the term denotes what is real; in its widest sense, this includes everything that is, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible. Reality in this sense includes being and sometimes is considered to...
running through the entire cosmos including the category of
substanceSubstance theory, or substance attribute theory, is an ontological theory about objecthood, positing that a substance is distinct from its properties. This is part of essentialism in that ousia as a substance can also be a descriptor of an object's being and/or nature...
(
jawhar)."
Unity of the intelligizing subject and intelligized
The unity of the intellect and the intelligible (Arabic:
Ittihad al-Aaqil wa l-Maqul) is one of Sadra's innovations. As
Henry CorbinHenry Corbin was a philosopher, theologian and professor of Islamic Studies at the Sorbonne in Paris, France....
describes:His writings are a testimony to the presence of a living intellectual tradition before him. Through their reading one realizes that he did not suddenly mushroom from a vacuum but rather was the crowning achievement of a tendency which for several centuries was in the making. For example, on the subject of the harmony between philosophy and religion, his solution is the final state of a process that goes back to al-Kindi himself.
List of works
His well-known published books include the following:
1.
al-Hikmat al-muta‘aliyah fi’l-asfar al-arba‘ah, a philosophical encyclopedia and a collection of important issues discussed in Islamic philosophy, enriched by the ideas of preceding philosophers, from Pythagoras to those living at the same time with Mulla Sadra, and containing the related responses on the basis of new and strong arguments. In four large volumes; also published several times in nine smaller volumes.
He composed this book gradually, starting in about 1015 A.H. (1605 A.D.); its completion took almost 25 years, until some years after 1040 A.H. (1630 A.D.)
2.
al-Tafsir (A commentary upon the Qur`an)
3.
Sharh al-hidayah, a commentary on a book called Hidayah, which had been written on the basis of Peripatetic philosophy.
4.
al-Mabda‘ wa’l-ma‘ad, also called
al-Hikmat al-muta‘aliyyah, considered to be a summary of the second half of Asfar. He called this book the Beginning and the End, since he believed at heart that philosophy means the knowledge of the Origin and the Return.
5.
al-Mazahir
This book is similar to al-Mabda‘ wa’l-ma‘ad, but is shorter than it. It is, in fact, a handbook for familiarizing readers with Mulla Sadra’s philosophy.
6.
Huduth al-‘alam, on the issue of the origination of the world, which is a complicated and disputable problem for many philosophers. He proved his solid theory through the theory of the trans-substantial motion.
7.
Iksir al-‘arifin, a gnostic and educative book.
8.
al-Hashr, a theory of the resurrection of animals and objects in the Hereafter.
9.
al-Masha‘ir, on existence and its related subjects. Professor
Henry CorbinHenry Corbin was a philosopher, theologian and professor of Islamic Studies at the Sorbonne in Paris, France....
has translated it into French and written an introduction to it. This book has recently been translated into English, too.
10.
al-waridat al-qalbiyyah, a brief account of important philosophical problems, it seems to be an inventory of the Divine inspirations and illuminations he had received all through his life.
11.
Iqad al-na‘imin, on theoretical and actual gnosis, and on the science of monotheism. It presents some guidelines and instructional points to wake up the sleeping.
12.
al-Masa‘il al-qudsiyyah, a booklet deals mainly with issues such as existence in mind and epistemology. Here, Mulla Sadra has combined epistemology and ontology.
13.
‘Arshiyyah, also called
al-Hikmat al-‘arshiyyah, a referential book about Mulla Sadra’s philosophy. As in al-Mazahir, he has tried to demonstrate the Beginning and the End concisely but precisely. This book has been translated by Professor James Winston Morris into English with an informative introduction.
14.
al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah, a philosophical book, written in the Illuminationist style, and represents Mulla Sadra’s ideas during the early periods of his philosophical thoughts.
15.
Sharh-i Shafa, a commentary upon some of the issues discussed in the part on theology (Ilahiyyat) in Ibn-Sina’s
al-Shifa.
16.
Sharh-i Hikmat al-ishraq, a useful and profound commentary or collection of glosses on Suhrawardi’s
Hikmat al-ishraq and Qutb al-Din Shirazi’s commentary upon it.
17.
Ittihad al-‘aquil wa’l-ma’qul, a monographic treatise on the demonstration of a complicated philosophical theory, the Union of the Intellect and the Intelligible, which no one could prove and rationalize prior to Mulla Sadra.
18.
Ajwibah al-masa’il, consisting of at least three treatises in which Mulla Sadra responds to the philosophical questions posed by his contemporary philosophers.
19.
Ittisaf al-mahiyyah bi’l wujud, a monographic treatise dealing with the problem of existence and its relation to quiddities.
20.
al-Tashakhkhus, explaining the problem of individuation and clarified its relation to existence and its principiality, which is one of the most fundamental principles he has propounded.
21.
Sarayan nur wujud, a treatise dealing with the quality of the descent or diffusion of existence from the True Source to existents (quiddities).
22.
Limmi’yya ikhtisas al-mintaqah, A treatise on logic, this work focuses on the cause of the specific form of the sphere.
23.
Khalq al-a’mal, a treatise on man’s determinism and free will.
24.
al-Qada’ wa’l-qadar, on the problem of Divine Decree and Destiny.
25.
Zad al-musafir, demonstrating resurrection and the Hereafter following a philosophical approach.
26.
al-Shawahid al-rububiyyah, a treatise not related to Mulla Sadra’s book of the same name (see 14. above). It is an inventory of his particular theories and opinions which he had been able to express in philosophical terms.
27.
al-Mizaj, a treatise on the reality of man’s temperament and its relation to the body and soul.
28.
Mutashabihat al-Qur’an, a treatise consists of Mulla Sadra’s interpretations of those Qura’nic verses which have secret and complicated meanings. It is considered as one of the chapters in [Mafatih al-ghayb].
29.
Isalat-i Ja’l-i wujud, on existence and its principiality as opposed to quiddities.
30.
al-Hashriyyah, a treatise on resurrection and people’s presence in the Hereafter, it deals with man’s being rewarded in paradise and punished in hell.
31.
al-alfazh al-mufradah, an abridged dictionary for interpreting words in the Qur’an.
32.
Radd-i shubahat-i iblis, explaining Satan’s seven paradoxes and providing the related answers.
33.
Si Asl, Mulla Sadra’s only book of philosophy in Persian. Here, by resorting to the main three moral principles, he has dealt with moral and educative subjects related to scientists, and advised his contemporary philosophers.
34.
Kasr al-asnam al-jahiliyyah (Demolishing the idols of the periods of barbarism and man’s ignorance). His intention here is to condemn and disgrace impious sophists.
35.
al-Tanqih, dealing with formal logic.
36.
al-Tasawwur wa’l-tasdiq, a treatise dealing with issues of the philosophy of logic and inquiries into concept and judgment.
37.
Diwan Shi’r (Collection of Poems), a number of scholarly and mystic poems in Persian.
38.
A Collection of Scientific-Literary Notes, some short notes of his own poetry, the statements of philosophers and gnostics, and scientific issues have been left from his youth, which comprise a precious collection. This book can familiarize the readers with subtleties of Mulla Sadra’s nature. These notes were compiled in two different collections, and it is likely that the smaller collection was compiled on one of his journeys.
39.
Letters: except for a few letters exchanged between Mulla Sadra and his master, Mir Damad, none of his letters has survived. These letters have been presented at the beginning of the 3-volume
Further reading
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein
Seyyed Hossein Nasr is an Iranian University Professor of Islamic studies at George Washington University, and a prominent Islamic philosopher...
, Sadr al-Din Shirazi and his Transcendent Theosophy, Background, Life and Works, 2nd ed., Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, 1997.
- Rahman, Fazlur, The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1975.
- Morris, James (trans.), The Wisdom of the Throne, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.
- Chittick, William
William C. Chittick is a leading translator and interpreter of classical Islamic philosophical and mystical texts. He is best known for his groundbreaking work on Rumi and Ibn 'Arabi, and has written extensively on the school of Ibn 'Arabi, Islamic philosophy, Shi'ism, and Islamic...
(trans.) The Elixir of the Gnostics, Provo: Brigham Young University Press, 2003.
- Rizvi, Sajjad, Mulla Sadra Shirazi: His Life, Works and Sources for Safavid Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
- Peerwani, Latimah (trans.), On the Hermeneutics of the Light Verse of the Qur'an. London: ICAS, 2004.
- Jambet, Christian, The Act of Being: The Philosophy of Revelation in Mulla Sadra, Trans. Jeff Fort, New York: Zone Books, 2006.
External links