Mozart and scatology
Encyclopedia
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , baptismal name Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart , was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. He composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, piano, operatic, and choral music...

 displayed scatological humor in his letters and a few recreational compositions. This material has long been a puzzle for Mozart scholarship. One view held by scholars deals with the scatology by seeking an understanding of the role of it in Mozart's family, his society and his times, while another view holds that such humor was the result of an "impressive list" of psychiatric conditions from which Mozart is claimed to have suffered.

Examples

A letter of 5 November 1777 to Mozart's cousin Maria Anna Thekla Mozart
Maria Anna Thekla Mozart
Maria Anna Thekla Mozart , called Marianne, known as Bäsle , was the cousin of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart....

 is an example of Mozart's use of scatology. The German original is in rhymed verse.
Well, I wish you good night
But first shit into your bed and make it burst.
Sleep soundly, my love
Into your mouth your arse you'll shove.


Mozart's canon
Canon (music)
In music, a canon is a contrapuntal composition that employs a melody with one or more imitations of the melody played after a given duration . The initial melody is called the leader , while the imitative melody, which is played in a different voice, is called the follower...

 "Leck mich im Arsch
Leck mich im Arsch
Leck mich im Arsch is a canon in B-flat major composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, K. 231 , with lyrics in German. It was one of a set of at least six canons probably written in Vienna in 1782...

" K. 231 (K6 382c) includes the lyrics:
Leck mich im A[rsch] g'schwindi, g'schwindi!


This would be translated into English as "lick me in the arse/ass, quickly, quickly!" "Leck mich im Arsch" is a standard vulgarism in German; its closest English counterpart is "Kiss my arse/ass."

Context

David Schroeder writes:
The passage of time has created an almost unbridgeable gulf between ourselves and Mozart's time, forcing us to misread his scatological letters even more drastically than his other letters. Very simply, these letters embarrass us, and we have tried to suppress them, trivialize them, or explain them out of the epistolary canon with pathological excuses.


For example, when Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990...

 was apprised of Mozart's scatology during a visit to the theater to see Peter Schaffer's famous play Amadeus
Amadeus
Amadeus is a play by Peter Shaffer.It is based on the lives of the composers Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Antonio Salieri, highly fictionalized.Amadeus was first performed in 1979...

, director Peter Hall relates: "She was not pleased. In her best headmistress style, she gave me a severe wigging for putting on a play that depicted Mozart as a scatological imp with a love of four-letter words. It was inconceivable, she said, that a man who wrote such exquisite and elegant music could be so foul mouthed". I said that Mozart's letters proved he was just that: he had an extraordinarily infantile sense of humour ... "I don't think you heard what I said," replied the Prime Minister. "He couldn't have been like that." I offered (and sent) a copy of Mozart’s letters to Number Ten
10 Downing Street
10 Downing Street, colloquially known in the United Kingdom as "Number 10", is the headquarters of Her Majesty's Government and the official residence and office of the First Lord of the Treasury, who is now always the Prime Minister....

 the next day; I was even thanked by the appropriate Private Secretary. But it was useless: the Prime Minster said I was wrong, so wrong I was." Source: Hall's preface to Amadeus (Schaffer 1981).

Letters

Benjamin Simkin, an endocrinologist
Endocrinology
Endocrinology is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions called hormones, the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, and differentiation and the coordination of...

, estimates that 39 of Mozart's letters include scatological passages. Almost all of these are directed to Mozart's own family, specifically his father Leopold
Leopold Mozart
Johann Georg Leopold Mozart was a German composer, conductor, teacher, and violinist. Mozart is best known today as the father and teacher of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and for his violin textbook Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule.-Childhood and student years:He was born in Augsburg, son of...

, his mother Anna Maria
Anna Maria Mozart
Anna Maria Walburga Mozart was the mother of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Maria Anna Mozart.-Biography:...

, his sister Nannerl
Maria Anna Mozart
Maria Anna Walburga Ignatia Mozart , nicknamed "Nannerl", was a musician, the older sister of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and daughter of Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart.-Childhood:...

, and his cousin Maria Anna Thekla Mozart
Maria Anna Thekla Mozart
Maria Anna Thekla Mozart , called Marianne, known as Bäsle , was the cousin of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart....

. According to Simkin, Leopold, Anna Maria, and Nannerl also included scatological humor in their own letters. Thus, Anna Maria wrote to her husband (26 September 1777; original is in rhyme):
Addio, ben mio. Keep well, my love.
Into your mouth your arse you'll shove.
I wish you good night, my dear,
But first shit in your bed and make it burst.


Even the relatively straight-laced Leopold used a scatological expression in one letter.

Several of Mozart's scatological letters were written to his cousin (and probable love interest, according to Solomon) Maria Anna Thekla Mozart
Maria Anna Thekla Mozart
Maria Anna Thekla Mozart , called Marianne, known as Bäsle , was the cousin of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart....

; these are often called the "Bäsle letters", after the German word Bäsle, a diminutive
Diminutive
In language structure, a diminutive, or diminutive form , is a formation of a word used to convey a slight degree of the root meaning, smallness of the object or quality named, encapsulation, intimacy, or endearment...

 form meaning "little cousin". In these letters, written after Mozart had spent a pleasant two weeks with his cousin in her native Augsburg
Augsburg
Augsburg is a city in the south-west of Bavaria, Germany. It is a university town and home of the Regierungsbezirk Schwaben and the Bezirk Schwaben. Augsburg is an urban district and home to the institutions of the Landkreis Augsburg. It is, as of 2008, the third-largest city in Bavaria with a...

, the scatology is combined with extravagant word play and sexual references. Robert Spaethling's rendered translation of part of a letter Mozart sent from Mannheim
Mannheim
Mannheim is a city in southwestern Germany. With about 315,000 inhabitants, Mannheim is the second-largest city in the Bundesland of Baden-Württemberg, following the capital city of Stuttgart....

 November 5, 1777:
Deares cozz buzz!

I have received reprieved your highly esteemed writing biting, and I have noted doted thy my uncle garfuncle, my aunt slant, and you too, are all well mell. We, too thank god, are in good fettle kettle ... You write further, indeed you let it all out, you expose yourself, you let yourself be heard, you give me notice, you declare yourself, you indicate to me, you bring me the news, you announce unto me, you state in broad daylight, you demand, you desire, you wish, you want, you like, you command that I, too, should could send you my Portrait. Eh bien, I shall mail fail it for sure. Oui, by the love of my skin, I shit on your nose, so it runs down your chin...


One of the letters Mozart wrote to his father while visiting Augsburg reports an encounter Mozart and his cousin had with a priest named Father Emilian:
[He was] an arrogant ass and a simple-minded little wit of his profession ... finally when he was a little drunk, which happened soon, he started on about music. He sang a canon, and said: I have never in my life heard anything more beautiful ... He started. I took the third voice, but I slipped in an entirely different text: 'P[ater] E: o du schwanz, leck mich im arsch' ["Father Emilian, oh you prick, lick me in the ass"]. Sotto voce
Sotto voce
Sotto voce means intentionally lowering one's voice for emphasis. The speaker gives the impression of uttering involuntarily a truth which may surprise, shock, or offend...

, to my cousin. Then we laughed together for another half hour.

Music

Mozart's scatological music was recreational and shared among friends. All of it takes the form of canon
Canon (music)
In music, a canon is a contrapuntal composition that employs a melody with one or more imitations of the melody played after a given duration . The initial melody is called the leader , while the imitative melody, which is played in a different voice, is called the follower...

s (rounds), in which each voice enters with the same words and music following a delay after the previous voice. Based on the testimony of Gottfried Weber
Gottfried Weber
Jacob Gottfried Weber , was a prominent German writer on music , composer, and jurist....

 it appears this music was sung in social gatherings. None of it was published in Mozart's lifetime.

Reactions of family and friends

Both the letters and the music were written on repeated occasions, suggesting that the recipients probably were not offended by them. There appears to be nothing in the correspondence requesting Mozart to stop his scatologizing.

On the other hand, it seems to have been recognized that things said or sung within the family or among friends might be unsuitable for public consumption. In 1798, Constanze sent her late husband's Bäsle letters to the publishers Breitkopf & Härtel
Breitkopf & Härtel
Breitkopf & Härtel is the world's oldest music publishing house. The firm was founded in 1719 in Leipzig by Bernhard Christoph Breitkopf . The catalogue currently contains over 1000 composers, 8000 works and 15,000 music editions or books on music. The name "Härtel" was added when Gottfried...

, who at the time were gathering material in hopes of preparing a Mozart biography. In the accompanying letter she wrote "Although in dubious taste, the letters to his cousin are full of wit and deserve mentioning, although they cannot of course be published in their entirety."

In the 18th century

Schroeder (1999) suggests that in the 18th century it was far more public and "mainstream". The German-language popular theater of Mozart's time was influenced by the Italian commedia dell' arte and emphasized the stock character of Hanswurst
Hanswurst
Hanswurst was a popular coarse-comic figure of German-speaking impromptu comedy. He is "a half doltish half cunning partly stupid partly knowing enterprising and cowardly self indulgent and merry fellow who in accordance with circumstances accentuated one or other of these characteristics."Through...

, a coarse and robust character who would entertain his audience by pretending to eat large and unlikely objects (for instance, a whole calf), then defecating them.

Schroeder suggests a political underlay to the scatology in popular theater: its viewers lived under a system of hereditary aristocracy that excluded them from political participation. The vulgarity of scatological popular theater was a counterpoint to the refined culture imposed from above. One of Mozart's own letters describes aristrocrats in scatological terms; he identified the aristocrats present at a concert in Augsburg (1777) as "the Duchess Smackarse, the Countess Pleasurepisser, the Princess Stinkmess, and the two Princes Potbelly von Pigtail".

In German culture

The folklorist and cultural anthropologist Alan Dundes
Alan Dundes
Alan Dundes, was a folklorist at the University of California, Berkeley. His work was said to have been central to establishing the study of folklore as an academic discipline. He wrote 12 books, both academic and popular, and edited or co-wrote two dozen more...

 suggested that interest in or tolerance for scatalogical matters is a specific trait of German national culture, one which is retained to this day:
In German folklore, one finds an inordinate number of texts concerned with anality. Scheisse (shit), Dreck (dirt), Mist (manure), Arsch (ass), and other locutions are commonplace. Folksongs, folktales, proverbs, folk speech—all attest to the Germans' longstanding special interest in this area of human activity. I am not claiming that other peoples of the world do not express a healthy concern for this area, but rather that the Germans appear to be preoccupied with such themes. It is thus not so much a matter of difference as it is of degree.


Dundes (1984) provides ample coverage of scatological humor in Mozart, but also cites scatological texts from Martin Luther
Martin Luther
Martin Luther was a German priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517...

, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer, pictorial artist, biologist, theoretical physicist, and polymath. He is considered the supreme genius of modern German literature. His works span the fields of poetry, drama, prose, philosophy, and science. His Faust has been called the greatest long...

, Heinrich Heine
Heinrich Heine
Christian Johann Heinrich Heine was one of the most significant German poets of the 19th century. He was also a journalist, essayist, and literary critic. He is best known outside Germany for his early lyric poetry, which was set to music in the form of Lieder by composers such as Robert Schumann...

, and other luminaries of German culture. Karhausen (1993) asserts that "Scatology was common in Mitteleuropa, [central Europe]" noting for instance that Mozart's Salzburg colleague Michael Haydn
Michael Haydn
Johann Michael Haydn was an Austrian composer of the classical period, the younger brother of Joseph Haydn.-Life:...

 also wrote a scatological canon.

Some of the phrases used by Mozart in his scatological material were not original with him but were part of the folklore and culture of his day: Mieder (2003) describes the Bäsle letters as involving "Mozart's intentional play with what is for the most part preformulated folk speech." An example given by Robert Spaethling is the folkloric origin of a phrase seen above, "Gute Nacht, scheiss ins Bett dass' Kracht," said by Spaethling to be a "children's rhyme that is still current in south German language areas today." Likewise, when Mozart sang to Aloysia Weber
Aloysia Weber
Maria Aloysia Louise Antonia Weber was a German soprano, remembered primarily for her association with the composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.-Biography:...

 the words "Leck mich das Mensch im Arsch, das mich nicht will" ("The one who doesn't want me can lick my ass") on the occasion of being romantically rejected by her, he was evidently singing an existing folk tune, not a song of his own invention.

Medical accounts

An early 20th century observer who suspected that Mozart's scatological materials could be interpreted in terms of psychological pathologies was the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig
Stefan Zweig
Stefan Zweig was an Austrian novelist, playwright, journalist and biographer. At the height of his literary career, in the 1920s and 1930s, he was one of the most famous writers in the world.- Biography :...

, who amassed a large collection of musical manuscripts. His collection included the Bäsle letters (at the time, unpublished) as well as the autographs of Mozart's scatological canons Difficile lectu
Difficile lectu (Mozart)
Difficile lectu, K. 559, is a canon composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The music, in F major, is set for three singers. The words are probably by Mozart himself....

 and O du eselhafter Peierl
O du eselhafter Peierl (Mozart)
O du eselhafter Peierl, K. 560a, is a canon composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The music, originally in F major, is set for four singers. The words are probably by Mozart himself.-Origin:...

. Zweig sent copies of the Bäsle letters to the celebrated psychiatrist Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud , born Sigismund Schlomo Freud , was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis...

 with the following suggestion:
These nine letters ... throw a psychologically very remarkable light on his erotic nature, which, more so than any other important man, has elements of infantilism and coprophilia
Coprophilia
Coprophilia , also called scatophilia or scat, is the paraphilia involving sexual pleasure from feces...

. It would actually be a very interesting study for one of your pupils.


Freud apparently declined Zweig's suggestion. As Schroeder notes, later psychobiographers seized on the letters as evidence for psychopathological tendencies in Mozart.

Some authors in the 1990s interpreted the material as evidence that Mozart had Tourette syndrome
Tourette syndrome
Tourette syndrome is an inherited neuropsychiatric disorder with onset in childhood, characterized by multiple physical tics and at least one vocal tic; these tics characteristically wax and wane...

 (TS). Simkin catalogued the scatological letters and compared their frequencies with similar vulgarisms from other members of Mozart's family—they are far more frequent. The scatological materials were combined by Simkin with biographical accounts from Mozart's own time that suggested that Mozart suffered from the tic
Tic
A tic is a sudden, repetitive, nonrhythmic, stereotyped motor movement or vocalization involving discrete muscle groups. Tics can be invisible to the observer, such as abdominal tensing or toe crunching. Common motor and phonic tics are, respectively, eye blinking and throat clearing...

s characteristic of Tourette syndrome. His claim was picked up by newspapers worldwide, causing an international sensation, and internet websites have fueled the speculation.

While often discussed, the Mozart/Tourette hypothesis has failed to sway mainstream opinion on this issue. Indeed, Kammer (2007) states that the work proposing the hypothesis has been "promptly and harshly" criticized. The critical commentary asserts both medical misdiagnosis and errors of Mozart scholarship. Kammer concluded that "Tourette’s syndrome is an inventive but implausible diagnosis in the medical history of Mozart". Evidence of motor tics was found lacking and the notion that involuntary vocal tics are transferred to the written form was labeled "problematic". Neurologist and author Oliver Sacks
Oliver Sacks
Oliver Wolf Sacks, CBE , is a British neurologist and psychologist residing in New York City. He is a professor of neurology and psychiatry at Columbia University, where he also holds the position of Columbia Artist...

 published an editorial disputing Simkin's claim, and the Tourette Syndrome Association
Tourette Syndrome Association
The Tourette Syndrome Association , based in Bayside, New York, United States, is a non-profit voluntary organization and the only national health-related organization serving people with Tourette syndrome. It was founded in 1972 by five couples, parents of children with Tourette syndrome...

 pointed out the speculative nature of this information. No Tourette's syndrome expert or organization has voiced concurrence that there is credible evidence to conclude that Mozart had Tourette's. One TS specialist stated that, "although some web sites list Mozart as an individual who had Tourette's and/or OCD, it's not clear from the descriptions of his behavior that he actually had either."

In letters

Benjamin Simkin's compilation lists scatological letters by Mozart to the following individuals:
  • his father, Leopold Mozart
    Leopold Mozart
    Johann Georg Leopold Mozart was a German composer, conductor, teacher, and violinist. Mozart is best known today as the father and teacher of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and for his violin textbook Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule.-Childhood and student years:He was born in Augsburg, son of...

    : twenty letters
  • his wife, Constanze Mozart
    Constanze Mozart
    Constanze Mozart was the wife of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.-Early years:Constanze Weber was born in Zell im Wiesental. Her mother was Cäcilia Weber, née Stamm. Her father Fridolin Weber worked as a "double bass player, prompter and music copyist." Fridolin's half-brother was the father of composer...

    : six letters
  • his cousin Maria Anna Thekla Mozart
    Maria Anna Thekla Mozart
    Maria Anna Thekla Mozart , called Marianne, known as Bäsle , was the cousin of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart....

    : six letters
  • his sister Maria Anna Mozart
    Maria Anna Mozart
    Maria Anna Walburga Ignatia Mozart , nicknamed "Nannerl", was a musician, the older sister of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and daughter of Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart.-Childhood:...

     (Nannerl): four letters
  • his mother Anna Maria Mozart
    Anna Maria Mozart
    Anna Maria Walburga Mozart was the mother of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Maria Anna Mozart.-Biography:...

    : one letter
  • his mother and sister jointly: one letter
  • his Salzburg friend Abbé Joseph Bullinger: one letter
  • his friend the choirmaster Anton Stoll, for whom he wrote Ave verum corpus
    Ave verum corpus (Mozart)
    Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Ave verum corpus in D major was written for Anton Stoll who was musical co-ordinator in the parish of Baden bei Wien, near Vienna. This setting of the Ave verum corpus text was composed to celebrate the feast of Corpus Christi and the autograph is dated 17 June 1791...

    : one letter

In music

The canons were first published after Mozart's death with bowdlerized lyrics; for instance "Leck mir den Arsch fein rein" ("Lick me in the arse nice and clean") became "Nichts labt mich mehr als Wein" ("Nothing refreshes me more than wine"). In some cases, only the first line of the original scatological lyrics is preserved. The following list is ordered by Köchel catalog number. Voices and conjectured dates are from Zaslaw and Cowdery (1990:101–105); and links marked "score" lead to the online edition of the Neue Mozart Ausgabe.

  • Leck mich im Arsch
    Leck mich im Arsch
    Leck mich im Arsch is a canon in B-flat major composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, K. 231 , with lyrics in German. It was one of a set of at least six canons probably written in Vienna in 1782...

    , "Lick me in the ass," K. 231 (K6 382c), for six voices. . Composed some time in the 1780s. First published as "Lass froh uns sein" ("Let us be joyful").
  • Leck mir den Arsch fein recht schön sauber
    Leck mir den Arsch fein recht schön sauber
    Leck mir den Arsch fein recht schön sauber is a canon for three voices in B-flat major, K. 233/382d, long thought to have been composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart during 1782 in Vienna.-Authenticity:...

    , "Lick me in the ass right well and clean," K. 233 (K6 382d). . First published as "Nichts labt mich mehr als Wein" ("Nothing pleases me more than wine"). The music of this canon was once thought to be by Mozart but was shown in 1988 by Wolfgang Plath to be by Wenzel Trnka
    Wenzel Trnka
    Wenzel Trnka von Krzowitz was a physician, professor, and amateur composer of the 18th century.-Life:...

    , originally to the Italian words "Tu sei gelosa, è vero". As the editors of the Neue Mozart Ausgabe note, the work almost certainly should be considered a work of Mozart's, but as the author of the lyrics rather than as the composer.
  • "Bei der Hitz im Sommer ess ich" ("In the heat of summer I eat"), K. 234 (K6 382e). . As with K. 233, the music is not by Mozart; originally it was the canon "So che vanti un cor ingrato" by Wenzel Trnka.
  • "Gehn wir im Prater, gehn wir in d' Hetz," K. 558, for four voices. . 1788 or earlier.
  • Difficile lectu mihi Mars
    Difficile lectu (Mozart)
    Difficile lectu, K. 559, is a canon composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The music, in F major, is set for three singers. The words are probably by Mozart himself....

    , K. 559, for three voices. . Ca. 1786–1787.
  • O du eselhafter Peierl
    O du eselhafter Peierl (Mozart)
    O du eselhafter Peierl, K. 560a, is a canon composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The music, originally in F major, is set for four singers. The words are probably by Mozart himself.-Origin:...

    , ("Oh, you asinine Peierl") for four voices, K. 560a. . Ca. 1786–1787. A slightly revised version, "O du eselhafter Martin" is catalogued as K. 560b.
  • Bona nox
    Bona nox
    Bona nox! bist a rechta Ox, K. 561, is a canon in A major for four voices a cappella by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart; Mozart entered this work into his catalogue on as part of a set of ten canons.-Music:...

     ("Good night") K. 561, for four voices. . 1788 or earlier.

General

  • Abert, Hermann (2008) W. A. Mozart. Edited by Cliff Eisen and translated from the German by Stewart Spencer. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • Anderson, Emily (1938) The Letters of Mozart and his Family. Macmillan.
  • Berke, Dietrich and Wolfgang Rehm (with collaboration of Miriam Pfadt) (2007) Die Neue Mozart-Ausgabe: Texte - Bilder - Chronik, 1955-2007. Kassel: Bärenreiter. Available on line: http://www.baerenreiter.com/html/download/pdfs/Endbericht-NMA.pdf
  • Dundes, Alan (1984) Life is like a Chicken Coop Ladder: Studies of German National Character through Folklore. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
  • Link, Dorothea (2006) "'È la fede degli amanti' and the Viennese operatic canon", in Simon Keefe, ed., Mozart Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mersmann, Hans, ed. (1972) Letters of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Dover Publications.
  • Mieder, Wolfgang (2003) "Now I Sit Like a Rabbit in the Pepper": Proverbial Language in the Letters of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Journal of Folklore Research 40: 33-70. Available on line at http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_folklore_research/v040/40.1mieder.html.
  • Schaffer, Peter (1981) Amadeus (fictional drama). Samuel French, Inc.
  • Schroeder, David P. (1999) Mozart in revolt: strategies of resistance, mischief, and deception. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300075421.
  • Solomon, Maynard (1996) Mozart: A Life. New York: Harper Perennial.
  • Spaethling, Robert (2000) Mozart's letters, Mozart's life: selected letters. New York; W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393047199.
  • Zaslaw, Neal, and William Cowdery (1990) The Compleat Mozart: a guide to the musical works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Tourette syndrome hypothesis

The following articles have advanced the theory that Mozart had Tourette syndrome:
  • Gunne, L.M. (1991) Hade Mozart Tourettes syndrom? Läkartidningen 88: 4325-4326. [cited in Kammer 1983]
  • Fog, R. (1995) Mozart’s bizarre verbal behavior: a case of Tourette syndrome? Maledicta 11:59-62. [cited in Kammer 1983]
  • Fog, R.and L. Regeur (1983) Did W.A. Mozart suffer from Tourette’s syndrome? World Congress of Psychiatry, Vienna. [cited in Kammer 1983]
  • Schaub, S. (1994) Mozart und das Tourette-Syndrom. Acta Mozartiana 41: 15-20. [cited in Kammer 1983]
  • Simkin, Benjamin (1992) Mozart's scatological disorder. BMJ 305: 1563-7. Available on line at http://www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/305/6868/1563.pdf.


The following articles direct criticism at the hypothesis:
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