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Mountain warfare
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Mountain warfare refers to warfare in the mountains or similarly rough terrain. This type of warfare is also called Alpine warfare, named after the Alps mountains. Mountain warfare is one of the most dangerous types of combat as it involves surviving not only combat with the enemy but also the extreme weather and dangerous terrain.
In combat, high ground gives a great advantage in both defense and offense.
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Encyclopedia
Mountain warfare refers to warfare in the mountains or similarly rough terrain. This type of warfare is also called Alpine warfare, named after the Alps mountains. Mountain warfare is one of the most dangerous types of combat as it involves surviving not only combat with the enemy but also the extreme weather and dangerous terrain.
In combat, high ground gives a great advantage in both defense and offense. Attacking a prepared enemy position in mountain terrain requires a greater ratio of attacking soldiers to defending soldiers than would be needed on level ground. Mountains at any time of year are dangerous – lightning, strong gusts of wind, falling rocks, extreme cold, and crevasses are all additional threats to combatants. Movement, reinforcements, and medical evacuation up and down steep slopes and areas where even pack animals cannot reach involves an enormous exertion of energy.
History
Early history
The term mountain warfare is said to have came about in the Middle Ages after the monarchies of Europe found it difficult to fight the Swiss armies in the Alps. This was because the Swiss were able to fight in smaller units and took vantage points against a huge unmaneuverable army. Similar styles of attack and defence were later employed by guerrillas, partisans and irregulars who hid in the mountains after an attack, making it challenging for an army of regulars to fight back.
World War I
Mountain warfare came to the fore once again, during World War I, when some of the nations involved in the war had mountain divisions that had hitherto not been tested. The Austro-Hungarian defence repelled the Italians as they took advantage of the mostly mountainous terrain, where more people succumbed to frostbite and avalanches than to bullets. During the summer of 1918, the Battle of San Matteo took place on the Italian front, this battle was fought at the highest elevation of any in the war. In December 1914, another offensive was launched by the Turkish supreme commander Enver Pasha with 95,000-190,000 troops against the Russians in the Caucasus. Insisting on a frontal attack against Russian positions in the mountains in the heart of winter, the end result was devastating and Enver lost 86% of his forces.
Kashmir conflict
The most dangerous and volatile of all mountain conflicts involves the ongoing one between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Since the partition in 1947, both countries have been constantly locked in skirmishes and wars mainly revolving around this mountainous region. The first hostilities between the two nations in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 showed that both were ill-equipped to fight in biting cold, let alone on the highest mountain region in the world, the Himalayas.
During the Sino-Indian War of 1962, hostilities broke out between the Republic of India and People's Republic of China at some of the highest altitudes over the Himalayan mountains.
Later wars between India and Pakistan were mainly fought on the valleys than in the mountains, although several major actions did take place in all these conflicts. This changed in the Kargil War when Indian forces were faced with the huge task of flushing out the infiltrators. This proxy warfare became the only modern war that was fought exclusively on the mountains. Since Pakistan-backed forces held the high ground and battles took place in peaks as high as 7,000 metres, it proved an immensely difficult task for the Indian Army, supported by massed artillery and the Indian Air Force, to vacate the Pakistani troops. As a result of its experiences in Mountain Warfare in Kargil, the Indian Army has now introduced courses about Artillery Firing in the Mountains, where traditional characteristics of ballistic projectiles do not work as effectively. On a related note, the Siachen Glacier was named the highest battleground in the world with both the countries holding their respective positions at nearly 7000 m above sea level. More than 4000 people have died in this inhospitable terrain, mostly due to weather extremes and the natural hazards of mountain warfare.
Mountain warfare training
The expense of training Mountain troops precludes them from being on the order of battle of most armies except those who reasonably expect to fight in such terrain. Mountain Warfare training is one of the most difficult and arduous there is and in many countries is the exclusive purview of special forces, elite units or commandos who are as part of their remit supposed to be able to fight in difficult terrain, (for example the Royal Marines in UK) though regular units may occasionally undertake training of this nature.
This is however not the case with other armies.
Austria and Germany
Gebirgsjäger is the German word for mountain infantry (Gebirge meaning "mountain range", and Jäger meaning "hunter" or "ranger"). The word Jäger is the traditional German term for light infantry.
The mountain infantry of Austria have their roots in the three "Landesschützen" regiments of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The mountain infantry of Germany carry on certain traditions of the Alpenkorps (Alpine corps) of World War I. Both countries' mountain infantry share the Edelweiss insignia. It was established in 1907 as a symbol of the Austro-Hungarian Landesschützen regiments by Emperor Franz Joseph I. These troops wore their edelweiss on the collar of their uniforms. When the Alpenkorps came to aid the Landeschützen in defending the Austro-Hungary's southern frontier against the Italian attack in May 1915, the grateful Landeschützen honoured the men of the Alpenkorps by awarding them their own insignia: the Edelweiss.
Today the traditions of the Austrian mountain infantry (Gebirgsjäger) are maintained by the 6th Jägerbrigade in Innsbruck, subdivided in three battalions (Jägerbataillon 23, Jägerbataillon 24 and Jägerbataillon 26)
Honouring tradition, upon the creation of the Bundeswehr in 1955, the mountain infantry returned as a distinctive arm of the German army. Until 2001, they were organized as the 1. Gebirgsdivision, but this division was disbanded in a general reform. The successor unit is Gebirgsjägerbrigade 23 which has its headquarters in Bad Reichenhall (Bavaria). Battalions of these mountain infantry are deployed in southern Bavaria.
The soldiers of the mountain infantry wear a grey cap (“Bergmütze”) with an edelweiss on its left side. This distinguishes them from all other German army soldiers who wear berets. The formal uniform, which is based on traditional skiing outfits, is also different from the standard German military uniform, and consists of ski jacket, stretch trousers and ski boots.
The “Kaiserjägermarsch” (March of the Kaiserjäger) from 1914 is the traditional military march of the German and Austrian mountain infantry.
France
Until 1859, Italy wasn't yet a unified state but a sum of kingdoms and independent republics (Kingdom of Naples, Republic of Venice, Papal States, etc.). The situation changed with the unification of Italy. France saw this geopolitical change as a possible threat from the other side of the Alps border, partially as the Italians were the first to have mountain warfare specialized troops.
The French solution was to create its own mountain corps in order to oppose a possible Italian invasion through the Alps. By December 24, 1888, a law created a troupes de montagne ("mountain troops") corps. 12 of the 31 existing Chasseurs à Pied ("Hunters on Foot") battalions were selected to be converted. These first units were named Bataillons Alpins de Chasseurs à Pied ("Hunters on Foot Alpine Battalions"), later shortened to Bataillons de Chasseurs Alpins ("Alpine Hunters Battalions").
Since 1999 they have been (with other units) part of the 27th Mountain Infantry Brigade (Brigade d'Infanterie de Montagne), and are currently organised into three battalions:
- 7th Battalion, Bourg-Saint-Maurice
- 13th Battalion, Chambéry
- 27th Battalion, Cran-Gevrier (Annecy)
All three battalions are based in cities in the French Alps, thus the name of the units.
The Chasseurs are easily recognised by their wide beret (when not in battle uniform), named tarte (= pie). The British Army adopted the the beret in the 1920s after having seen similar berets worn by the 70th Chasseurs Alpins (now disbanded).
India
The Indian Army has had long experience with mountain warfare, having fought numerous conflicts in the Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. Major conflicts include the 1962 Sino-Indian War and the Kargil War in 1999. Siachen Glacier is the world's highest battlefield, with both Indian and Pakistani troops deployed and having fought wars there for over two decades in some of the most inhospitable mountain territory in the world.
Due to the instability in the region and need for constant deployment in the mountainous regions, the Indian Army has some of the most extensive and well developed Mountain Warfare capabilities in the world. The mountain warfare units were vastly expanded after the 1962 war, with the creation of six division. The Army presently has 10 Army Divisions dedicated to mountain warfare (8 Mountain Divisions and 2 Mountain Strike divisions) and another infantry division earmarked for high altitude operations. Each division has a personnel strength of 10,000-13,000 troops and consists of 3 brigades with 3,000 to 4,500 men each.
Two more mountain divisions, with air assets are being raised, and will be operational within five years. The two divisions will also have air assets, including Utility helicopters, Helicopter gunships and Attack helicopters.
Training:
The Indian Military Academy (IMA), Dehradun conducts preliminary mountaineering and mountain warfare training for all Officer Cadets. Discontinued in the late 1980s, the Bhadraj Camp was revived after the Kargil War.
For more specialized training, the Army operates the Parvat Ghatak School (Hindi: ????? ????, Mountain Warrior) at Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh. This high-altitude commando school is the highest of its kind in India at 15,000 feet. With the mercury dipping to minus 20 degrees providing a freezing tougher terrain to impart training in conditions similar to Siachen.
Another school, the High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS) is located near Gulmarg, Jammu and Kashmir. Set up in 1948 as the 19 Infantry Division Ski School, HAWS has over the years become the Army's nodal agency for "specialised training and dissemination of doctrines" in high-altitude, mountain and snow warfare. Mountain warfare courses are conducted in the Sonamarg area, and snow-craft & winter warfare training in the Gulmarg area. HAWS played an important role during the Kargil War by conducting crash courses for troops prior to their deployment.
Recognizing the extensive experience of the Indian Army in mountain warfare, troops from other nations regularly train and conduct joint exercises at these schools. Because of its rich experience in fighting wars in mountain regions for over 50 years, Indian Mountain Warfare Units are considered to be the best in this field in the entire world, as numerous army units all over the world are now implementing training modules modeled after Indian Mountain Warfare training systems. These include forces from UK, US, Russia, etc. In 2004, US special forces teams came to India to study the lessons learned by Indian Army units during the Kargil War in order to apply them to their operations in Afghanistan. Russian troops are also training at the High Altitude Warfare School in Gulmarg to apply the knowledge to their operations in Chechnya. They will also visit Siachen and other Army posts.
Italy
The Alpini, meaning "the Alpines", are the elite mountain warfare soldiers of the Italian Army. They are currently organised in two main operational brigades, which are subordinated to the Alpini Corps Command. The singular is an Alpino (an "Alpine").
On June 7, 1883, the Alpini were awarded the "fiamme verdi" (green flames) collar patch. Also adopted was their distinctive headdress; the "Cappello Alpino" with its black feather, which led to them being nicknamed "Le Penne Nere" or "black feathers".
Originally formed in 1872, their mission was to protect Italy's northern mountainous borders. In 1888 the Alpini were sent to their first mission abroad, in Africa, during the First Italo–Ethiopian War. They distinguished themselves during World War I when they fought against Austro-Hungarian soldiers in what has since been called the "War in snow and ice". During World War II, the Alpini fought together with Axis forces mostly on the Eastern Front being tasked to hold the front in the Don river plains.
In the 1990s, after the end of the Cold War, three of the five Alpini brigades and many support units were disbanded due to the reorganization process of the Italian Army. Currently, despite having some of the best trained and best equipped mountain troops in the world, the military role of Alpines is seen in terms of peacekeeping missions and minor disputes interventions.
The 4th Alpini Regiment is a SOF (Special Operations Forces) unit of elite mountain infantry specialized in the airborne assault role. It originates from the Alpini Paracadutisti platoons of Alpini Brigade founded in the '50s, then merged, on the 1st of april 1964, in the Alpine Paratroopers Company.
Romania
The Vânatori de Munte (English translation: Mountain Hunters/Rangers) are the elite mountain troops of the Romanian Land Forces. They were first established as an independent Army Corps in 1916 during World War I, and became operational in 1917 under Corpul de Munte designation.
Thought as of being elite troops, the Romanian Vânatori de Munte saw action in World War II on the Eastern Front in some of the harshest battles - including the battles of Sevastopol and Stalingrad - where their performance lived up to their reputation: virtually all their commanders from brigade level and up received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.
There are currently two brigades operational, one subordinated to the 1st Territorial Army Corps (the 2nd Mountain Troops Brigade), and another one subordinated to the 4th Territorial Army Corps (61st Mountain Troops Brigade). Often, mountain troops units are participating in peacekeeping missions in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Pakistan
In the Pakistan Army, mountain training is considered part of overall training and all soldiers and units are expected to be proficient at it. Almost all units of all arms serve tours in Kashmir and Northern Areas, often in active duties on the LOC or Siachin. The Pakistan Army’s High-Altitude School, at Rattu in Northern Kashmir, is an ideal location on the confluence of the Hindukush, Himalayas, and Karakorum ranges. The school conducts training throughout the year and includes mountain climbing on peaks ranging from 15,000 to 20,000 feet and survival on glaciated terrain and in snowy and icy conditions.
Poland
Podhale rifles (Polish: Strzelcy podhalanscy) is a traditional name of the mountain infantry units of the Polish Army. Formed in 1918 out of volunteers of the region of Podhale, in 1919 the smaller detachments of Podhale rifles were pressed into two mountain infantry divisions, the 21st Mountain Infantry and 22nd Mountain Infantry Divisions, as well as into three brigades of mountain infantry. Considered an elite of the Polish Army, the units were roughly equivalent to the German Gebirgsjäger troops.
Former Soviet Union
The USSR maintained several thousand of mountain troops and used them to good effect in the Caucasus and in Afghanistan.
Spain
Spain has a Brigade of Mountain troop:
- Brigada de Cazadores de Montaña "Aragón" I (1st Mountain Brigade)
- Regimiento de Cazadores de Montaña "Galicia" 64 (64th Mountain Regiment)
- Regimiento de Cazadores de Montaña "America" 66 (66th Mountain Regiment)
- Grupo de Artillería de Montaña I (1st Mountain Artillery Battalion)
- Grupo Logístico de Montaña I (1st Mountain Logistic Battalion)
- Batallón de Cuartel General I (1st Headquarters Battalion)
- Unidad de Zapadores de Montaña 1 (1st Mountain Sapper Company)
Sweden
Mountains constitute almost half the area of Sweden. Especially its northern border areas are mountainous. Winter and mountain warfare skills were therefore always important to the country. Between 1945 and 2000 Sweden trained and deployed several companies per year at the Army Ranger School and later the Lapland/Arctic Mountain Ranger regiment (I22) in Kiruna (located some 150 KM north of the arctic circle in Lapland). From the start on the school/regiment drew on experiences gained during WW II from guarding and patrolling the mountainous northern borders and uninhabited inland mountain regions as well as from light infantry and ski fighting in Finland in the wars against the Soviet Union. Later the army as a whole benefited from the regiments location for training of not only the regiments own ranger units but also commanding and training officers and complete fighting units from brigades and battalions all over the country as well as from the regiments co-operation and exchange on training and methods development with similar units in for example Finland, Norway, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, the UK, and the USA.
In recent years, after massive cut backs in the armed forces, Sweden have deployed troops to the Middle East and due to experiences from there and after having identified it actually lacked the trademark Swedish winter and mountain fighting skills and abilities available to it before the surprising political decision to close the Lapland ranger regiment (I22) in Kiruna and to inactivate its several already trained and equipped battalion and company sized field units in 2000, the army has (faced with its currently very limited resources, few remaining training regiments/locations, and few more than company sized field units of any kind) had to again start up a dedicated mountain platoon. This is, however, nowadays based at Bodens Infantry regiment's (I19/P5) ranger detachment in Arvidsjaur (located 100 KM SOUTH of the arctic circle more in woodland terrain than in harsh northern mountainous terrain). The daunting task for this single platoon is to guide other smaller units in the mountains besides taking on own recon and limited fighting tasks.
Switzerland
Switzerland have in service three Brigades of mountain troops.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the Royal Marines are the principal regular unit trained in mountain and cold weather warfare and have a specialised instructor cadre: the Mountain Leader Training Cadre. The capability is fielded by 3 Commando Brigade. The British Army also have the Mountain Troops of Special Air Service squadrons.
United States
The US has a distinguished history in mountain warfare, the 10th Mountain Division served in the Italian Apennine Mountains in WWII. The modern US military has several shortcomings in this area. Pakistani and Indian veterans of Kashmir who have attended the US Army Mountain Warfare School in Vermont and the US Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training Center (MWTC) in Bridgeport, California have noted that while the US Military has excellent mountaineers, their Mountain Warfare skills fall short of expectations, . The Marine Corps at the Mountain Warfare Training Center (6700ft - 14000ft) conducts individual skills and survival training as well as Marine Air/Ground Task Force MAGTF collective training as part of PTP for OEF-bound units. The U.S. Army does not conduct collective training in mountain warfare; it focuses more on individual survival training rather than high-altitude combat. . These deficits were seen most glaringly during Operation Anaconda.
Other countries
At present the following armies have specialised alpine units or Mountain troops:
- Argentina: Cazadores de Montaña , 8th Mountain Infantry Brigade , 6th Mountain Infantry Brigade
- Chile: Infantería de Montaña
- Greece: Evzones Regiments (historical), Mountain Raiding Companies (modern)
- Netherlands: Mountain Leader Reconnaissance Platoon, Netherlands Marine Corps
- Poland: Podhale Rifles
- Romania: Vânatori de Munte
- Spain: Cazadores de Montaña
- Switzerland: Gebirgsinfanteriebrigade 9 , Gebirgsinfanteriebrigade 10 , Gebirgsinfanteriebrigade 12
Also Armenia, Bulgaria, Israel, Nagorno-Karabakh, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine are among the nations that field units specialized in mountain warfare.
External links
- Mountain Combat WWII
- High Altitude Warfare School Of the Indian Army
- Mountain War in WWI
- Major M.A. Malik, , Military Review, Sep-Oct 2004
- Official Italian Army website page on Alpine Troops Command
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