Mountain View, Arkansas
Encyclopedia
Mountain View is the largest city in and the county seat
of Stone County in the north-central region of the U.S. state
of Arkansas
. According to 2005 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city was 2,998. The town's name comes from its location in a valley surrounded by the eastern Ozark Mountains. Prior to the founding of Mountain View in 1890, the town of Riggsville existed immediately to the east.
Mountain View was the birthplace of Dick Powell
(1907–1963), a singer, actor
, film producer
, film director
and studio
boss (cofounder of Four Star Television
).
According to the United States Census Bureau
, the city has a total area of 6.8 square miles (17.7 km²), of which, 6.8 square miles (17.7 km²) of it is land and 0.15% is water.
of 2000, there were 2,876 people, 1,287 households, and 792 families residing in the city. The population density
was 421.8 people per square mile (162.8/km²). There were 1,450 housing units at an average density of 212.7 per square mile (82.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.97% White
, 0.94% Native American
, 0.03% Pacific Islander
, 0.31% from other races
, and 1.74% from two or more races. 1.70% of the population were Hispanic
or Latino
of any race.
There were 1,287 households out of which 23.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.7% were married couples
living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.4% were non-families. 35.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.72.
In the city the population was spread out with 20.2% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 20.7% from 25 to 44, 26.3% from 45 to 64, and 25.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females there were 81.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $19,302, and the median income for a family was $27,589. Males had a median income of $20,000 versus $16,790 for females. The per capita income
for the city was $17,375. About 10.2% of families and 17.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.1% of those under age 18 and 11.7% of those age 65 or over.
, in Fifty-Six
, Arkansas
, or The Ozark Folk Center
State Park. Many others seek the world-renowned trout fishing of the White River
, or the excellent camping, hiking and mountain-biking that can be found in the Ozark National Forest. A few live music and variety shows, such as the White River Hoedown, also entertain travelers by mixing contemporary country
, gospel
and bluegrass music
with a bit of local humor. However, the majority of visitors to Mountain View come to attend one of the two major festivals held here every year, and to enjoy the impromptu folk music
jam sessions that occur around the courthouse square.
The remainder of the local economy consists mostly of agriculture
, specifically the farming of livestock
, primarily cattle
and chickens. Large-scale industrial activities in the area are overall nonexistent, excepting a few small manufacturing companies. The Stone County Iron Works, a nationally-known company that produces iron furniture, fixtures and housewares, is headquartered in Mountain View. Recently, the city has seen expansion of its personal aircraft maintenance and repair industry.
Stone County, along with neighboring Arkansas counties, is a dry county
.
, a two-year institution whose main campus is located in Melbourne, Arkansas
. The city is also home to the main campus of the Mountain View School District, a secondary school that also maintains campuses in Timbo, Arkansas
and Fox, Arkansas
. The school district boundaries are the same as those of Stone County, Arkansas.
In April, the city hosts the Ozark Folk Festival. A highlight of this festival is an old-fashioned "home-town" parade, which brings out school band
s, patriotic veterans groups, show horses, and decorated floats. Numerous folk craft
vendors and many impromptu performances of live folk music
are also part of the celebration.
During the Spring, Summer and Fall, anytime the weather is nice, people from all over will gather in and around the Town Square to play and listen to Music. Bluegrass mostly, but a wide array of Folk, Swing, Country and Gospel can be heard performed by local townsfolk as well as Picker's from hundreds of miles away. Musicians range in age from 8 to 80. Small eating establishments on the square serve BBQ, Hamburgers, Corn Dogs, Funnel cakes, Ice Cream, Milk Shakes and even Beans & Cornbread.
During the last weekend of October, thousands attend the Arkansas Bean Fest and Great Championship Outhouse Races. Early Saturday morning, nearly one ton of pinto beans are cooked in large, antique iron
kettles that are set up along the west side of the courthouse
square. Promptly at noon, a nearly endless amount of free beans and cornbread
are served to the gathered crowd. The festival continues with the famous Outhouse
Race. Teams from Arkansas
and surrounding states push outhouses built on wheels (similar to a go-kart) in a series of races. The overall champion receives the coveted Golden Toilet Seat Trophy. Handmade crafts and folk music
play an integral part in this festival as well.
Other local festivals included the Mountain View Bluegrass
Festival, held in both mid-March and mid-November; An Old-Fashioned Fourth of July, held on July 3 and 4; and the Ozark Mountain Christmas
, held throughout the month of December. The latter festival is especially notable because it features the town Christmas tree lighting and lighting of the downtown square, including the courthouse and other downtown buildings.
The Ozark Folk Center
plays host to several events throughout the year, including live concerts by well-known artist such as the Old Crow Medicine Show
and Del McCoury
, the Arkansas State Fiddle
Championships, and workshops teaching banjo
, dulcimer
, and other folk crafts.
County seat
A county seat is an administrative center, or seat of government, for a county or civil parish. The term is primarily used in the United States....
of Stone County in the north-central region of the U.S. state
U.S. state
A U.S. state is any one of the 50 federated states of the United States of America that share sovereignty with the federal government. Because of this shared sovereignty, an American is a citizen both of the federal entity and of his or her state of domicile. Four states use the official title of...
of Arkansas
Arkansas
Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states , and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River...
. According to 2005 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city was 2,998. The town's name comes from its location in a valley surrounded by the eastern Ozark Mountains. Prior to the founding of Mountain View in 1890, the town of Riggsville existed immediately to the east.
Mountain View was the birthplace of Dick Powell
Dick Powell
Richard Ewing "Dick" Powell was an American singer, actor, producer, director and studio boss.Despite the same last name he was not related to William Powell, Eleanor Powell or Jane Powell.-Biography:...
(1907–1963), a singer, actor
Actor
An actor is a person who acts in a dramatic production and who works in film, television, theatre, or radio in that capacity...
, film producer
Film producer
A film producer oversees and delivers a film project to all relevant parties while preserving the integrity, voice and vision of the film. They will also often take on some financial risk by using their own money, especially during the pre-production period, before a film is fully financed.The...
, film director
Film director
A film director is a person who directs the actors and film crew in filmmaking. They control a film's artistic and dramatic nathan roach, while guiding the technical crew and actors.-Responsibilities:...
and studio
Studio
A studio is an artist's or worker's workroom, or the catchall term for an artist and his or her employees who work within that studio. This can be for the purpose of architecture, painting, pottery , sculpture, scrapbooking, photography, graphic design, filmmaking, animation, radio or television...
boss (cofounder of Four Star Television
Four Star Television
Four Star Television, also called Four Star International, was an American television production company. Founded in 1952 as Four Star Productions by prominent Hollywood actors Dick Powell, David Niven, Ida Lupino, and Charles Boyer, the company produced many well-known shows of the early days of...
).
Geography
Mountain View is located at 35°51′54"N 92°6′31"W (35.864886, -92.108497).According to the United States Census Bureau
United States Census Bureau
The United States Census Bureau is the government agency that is responsible for the United States Census. It also gathers other national demographic and economic data...
, the city has a total area of 6.8 square miles (17.7 km²), of which, 6.8 square miles (17.7 km²) of it is land and 0.15% is water.
Demographics
As of the censusCensus
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common...
of 2000, there were 2,876 people, 1,287 households, and 792 families residing in the city. The population density
Population density
Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and particularly to humans...
was 421.8 people per square mile (162.8/km²). There were 1,450 housing units at an average density of 212.7 per square mile (82.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.97% White
Race (United States Census)
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
, 0.94% Native American
Race (United States Census)
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
, 0.03% Pacific Islander
Race (United States Census)
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
, 0.31% from other races
Race (United States Census)
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
, and 1.74% from two or more races. 1.70% of the population were Hispanic
Race (United States Census)
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
or Latino
Race (United States Census)
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, as defined by the Federal Office of Management and Budget and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are...
of any race.
There were 1,287 households out of which 23.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.7% were married couples
Marriage
Marriage is a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged in a variety of ways, depending on the culture or subculture in which it is found...
living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.4% were non-families. 35.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.72.
In the city the population was spread out with 20.2% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 20.7% from 25 to 44, 26.3% from 45 to 64, and 25.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females there were 81.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $19,302, and the median income for a family was $27,589. Males had a median income of $20,000 versus $16,790 for females. The per capita income
Per capita income
Per capita income or income per person is a measure of mean income within an economic aggregate, such as a country or city. It is calculated by taking a measure of all sources of income in the aggregate and dividing it by the total population...
for the city was $17,375. About 10.2% of families and 17.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.1% of those under age 18 and 11.7% of those age 65 or over.
Economy
The local economy is largely tourism-based. Numerous hotels and restaurants exist to serve travelers who come to visit the nearby Blanchard Springs CavernsBlanchard Springs Caverns
Blanchard Springs Caverns is a cave system located in the Ozark National Forest in Stone County in northern Arkansas, 2 miles off Highway 14 a short distance north of Mountain View. Blanchard Springs Caverns is a three-level cave system, two of which are open for guided tours. The Dripstone Trail...
, in Fifty-Six
Fifty-Six, Arkansas
Fifty-Six is a city in Stone County, Arkansas, United States. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 163.-Geography:The community was named for School District No. 56...
, Arkansas
Arkansas
Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states , and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River...
, or The Ozark Folk Center
Ozark Folk Center
The Ozark Folk Center is an Arkansas living history state park located in scenic Mountain View, Arkansas dedicated to preserving and presenting Ozark cultural heritage and tradition to the public.- History :...
State Park. Many others seek the world-renowned trout fishing of the White River
White River (Arkansas)
The White River is a 722-mile long river that flows through the U.S. states of Arkansas and Missouri.-Course:The source of the White River is in the Boston Mountains of northwest Arkansas, in the Ozark-St. Francis National Forest southeast of Fayetteville...
, or the excellent camping, hiking and mountain-biking that can be found in the Ozark National Forest. A few live music and variety shows, such as the White River Hoedown, also entertain travelers by mixing contemporary country
Country
A country is a region legally identified as a distinct entity in political geography. A country may be an independent sovereign state or one that is occupied by another state, as a non-sovereign or formerly sovereign political division, or a geographic region associated with a previously...
, gospel
Gospel
A gospel is an account, often written, that describes the life of Jesus of Nazareth. In a more general sense the term "gospel" may refer to the good news message of the New Testament. It is primarily used in reference to the four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John...
and bluegrass music
Bluegrass music
Bluegrass music is a form of American roots music, and a sub-genre of country music. It has mixed roots in Scottish, English, Welsh and Irish traditional music...
with a bit of local humor. However, the majority of visitors to Mountain View come to attend one of the two major festivals held here every year, and to enjoy the impromptu folk music
Folk music
Folk music is an English term encompassing both traditional folk music and contemporary folk music. The term originated in the 19th century. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted by mouth, as music of the lower classes, and as music with unknown composers....
jam sessions that occur around the courthouse square.
The remainder of the local economy consists mostly of agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
, specifically the farming of livestock
Livestock
Livestock refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning...
, primarily cattle
Cattle
Cattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
and chickens. Large-scale industrial activities in the area are overall nonexistent, excepting a few small manufacturing companies. The Stone County Iron Works, a nationally-known company that produces iron furniture, fixtures and housewares, is headquartered in Mountain View. Recently, the city has seen expansion of its personal aircraft maintenance and repair industry.
Stone County, along with neighboring Arkansas counties, is a dry county
Dry county
A dry county is a county in the United States whose government forbids the sale of alcoholic beverages. Some prohibit off-premises sale, some prohibit on-premises sale, and some prohibit both. Hundreds of dry counties exist across the United States, almost all of them in the South...
.
Education
The city hosts a satellite campus of Ozarka CollegeOzarka College
Ozarka College is a two-year public post-secondary institution located primarily in Melbourne, Arkansas, with satellite campuses in Mountain View and Ash Flat, and class offerings in Mammoth Spring, Salem and Viola...
, a two-year institution whose main campus is located in Melbourne, Arkansas
Melbourne, Arkansas
Melbourne is a city in Izard County, Arkansas, United States. The population was 1,673 at the 2000 census. The town is the county seat of Izard County, and home to the main campus of Ozarka College.-Geography:Melbourne is located at ....
. The city is also home to the main campus of the Mountain View School District, a secondary school that also maintains campuses in Timbo, Arkansas
Timbo, Arkansas
Timbo is an unincorporated community in Stone County, Arkansas, United States. It is in the Ozark Mountains region of the northern part of the state and is near the town of Mountain View....
and Fox, Arkansas
Fox, Arkansas
Fox is an unincorporated community in Stone County, Arkansas, United States. Fox is located along Arkansas Highway 263 west-southwest of Mountain View. Fox has a post office with ZIP code 72051....
. The school district boundaries are the same as those of Stone County, Arkansas.
Special events
Local festivals play an integral part in Mountain View's economy and culture, and the city is widely know throughout the country for its hospitality, uniqueness and relaxed pace of life. As such, thousands of people travel to Mountain View each year to attend one of these events, and get a taste of Ozark Mountain culture. Often lodging must be secured a year in advance of the two major festivals. Some local estimates say that the city's population has grown to as much as 100,000 during past festivals, though this is likely an exaggeration. Average festival attendance tends to fall between 40,000 and 60,000.In April, the city hosts the Ozark Folk Festival. A highlight of this festival is an old-fashioned "home-town" parade, which brings out school band
School band
A school band is a group of student musicians who rehearse and perform instrumental music together. A concert band is usually under the direction of one or more conductors...
s, patriotic veterans groups, show horses, and decorated floats. Numerous folk craft
Craft
A craft is a branch of a profession that requires some particular kind of skilled work. In historical sense, particularly as pertinent to the Medieval history and earlier, the term is usually applied towards people occupied in small-scale production of goods.-Development from the past until...
vendors and many impromptu performances of live folk music
Folk music
Folk music is an English term encompassing both traditional folk music and contemporary folk music. The term originated in the 19th century. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted by mouth, as music of the lower classes, and as music with unknown composers....
are also part of the celebration.
During the Spring, Summer and Fall, anytime the weather is nice, people from all over will gather in and around the Town Square to play and listen to Music. Bluegrass mostly, but a wide array of Folk, Swing, Country and Gospel can be heard performed by local townsfolk as well as Picker's from hundreds of miles away. Musicians range in age from 8 to 80. Small eating establishments on the square serve BBQ, Hamburgers, Corn Dogs, Funnel cakes, Ice Cream, Milk Shakes and even Beans & Cornbread.
During the last weekend of October, thousands attend the Arkansas Bean Fest and Great Championship Outhouse Races. Early Saturday morning, nearly one ton of pinto beans are cooked in large, antique iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
kettles that are set up along the west side of the courthouse
Courthouse
A courthouse is a building that is home to a local court of law and often the regional county government as well, although this is not the case in some larger cities. The term is common in North America. In most other English speaking countries, buildings which house courts of law are simply...
square. Promptly at noon, a nearly endless amount of free beans and cornbread
Cornbread
Cornbread is a generic name for any number of quick breads containing cornmeal and leavened by baking powder.-History:Native Americans were using ground corn for food thousands of years before European explorers arrived in the New World...
are served to the gathered crowd. The festival continues with the famous Outhouse
Outhouse
An outhouse is a small structure separate from a main building which often contained a simple toilet and may possibly also be used for housing animals and storage.- Terminology :...
Race. Teams from Arkansas
Arkansas
Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states , and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River...
and surrounding states push outhouses built on wheels (similar to a go-kart) in a series of races. The overall champion receives the coveted Golden Toilet Seat Trophy. Handmade crafts and folk music
Folk music
Folk music is an English term encompassing both traditional folk music and contemporary folk music. The term originated in the 19th century. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted by mouth, as music of the lower classes, and as music with unknown composers....
play an integral part in this festival as well.
Other local festivals included the Mountain View Bluegrass
Bluegrass music
Bluegrass music is a form of American roots music, and a sub-genre of country music. It has mixed roots in Scottish, English, Welsh and Irish traditional music...
Festival, held in both mid-March and mid-November; An Old-Fashioned Fourth of July, held on July 3 and 4; and the Ozark Mountain Christmas
Christmas
Christmas or Christmas Day is an annual holiday generally celebrated on December 25 by billions of people around the world. It is a Christian feast that commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ, liturgically closing the Advent season and initiating the season of Christmastide, which lasts twelve days...
, held throughout the month of December. The latter festival is especially notable because it features the town Christmas tree lighting and lighting of the downtown square, including the courthouse and other downtown buildings.
The Ozark Folk Center
Ozark Folk Center
The Ozark Folk Center is an Arkansas living history state park located in scenic Mountain View, Arkansas dedicated to preserving and presenting Ozark cultural heritage and tradition to the public.- History :...
plays host to several events throughout the year, including live concerts by well-known artist such as the Old Crow Medicine Show
Old Crow Medicine Show
Old Crow Medicine Show is an old-time string band based in Nashville, Tennessee. Their music has been called bluegrass, Americana, and alt-country, in addition to old-time. Along with original songs, the band performs many pre-World War II blues and folk songs...
and Del McCoury
Del McCoury
Delano Floyd McCoury is an American bluegrass musician. As leader of the Del McCoury Band, he plays guitar and sings lead vocals along with his two sons, Ronnie McCoury and Rob McCoury, who play mandolin and banjo respectively...
, the Arkansas State Fiddle
Fiddle
The term fiddle may refer to any bowed string musical instrument, most often the violin. It is also a colloquial term for the instrument used by players in all genres, including classical music...
Championships, and workshops teaching banjo
Banjo
In the 1830s Sweeney became the first white man to play the banjo on stage. His version of the instrument replaced the gourd with a drum-like sound box and included four full-length strings alongside a short fifth-string. There is no proof, however, that Sweeney invented either innovation. This new...
, dulcimer
Appalachian dulcimer
The Appalachian dulcimer is a fretted string instrument of the zither family, typically with three or four strings. It is native to the Appalachian region of the United States...
, and other folk crafts.
Notable people
- Mountain View is the birthplace of actor Dick PowellDick PowellRichard Ewing "Dick" Powell was an American singer, actor, producer, director and studio boss.Despite the same last name he was not related to William Powell, Eleanor Powell or Jane Powell.-Biography:...
. - Timbo, ArkansasTimbo, ArkansasTimbo is an unincorporated community in Stone County, Arkansas, United States. It is in the Ozark Mountains region of the northern part of the state and is near the town of Mountain View....
, near Mountain View, is the birthplace of folkFolk musicFolk music is an English term encompassing both traditional folk music and contemporary folk music. The term originated in the 19th century. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted by mouth, as music of the lower classes, and as music with unknown composers....
songwriterSongwriterA songwriter is an individual who writes both the lyrics and music to a song. Someone who solely writes lyrics may be called a lyricist, and someone who only writes music may be called a composer...
and musicianMusicianA musician is an artist who plays a musical instrument. It may or may not be the person's profession. Musicians can be classified by their roles in performing music and writing music.Also....* A person who makes music a profession....
Jimmy DriftwoodJimmy DriftwoodJames Corbitt Morris , known professionally as Jimmy Driftwood or Jimmie Driftwood, was a prolific American folk music songwriter and musician, most famous for his songs "The Battle of New Orleans" and "Tennessee Stud"...
.
Historical events
- Mountain View was the location of 1929 trial in the Connie Franklin murder caseConnie Franklin murder caseConnie Franklin became widely known in the United States for testifying at his own murder trial in 1929. Franklin was known in the popular press as the "Arkansas Ghost".-Background:...
, in which the "victim" testified.
Tornadoes
- A TornadoTornadoA tornado is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as a twister or a cyclone, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology in a wider...
on April 14, 1996, rated F4 on the Fujita scaleFujita scaleThe Fujita scale , or Fujita-Pearson scale, is a scale for rating tornado intensity, based primarily on the damage tornadoes inflict on human-built structures and vegetation...
killed NFL QuarterbackQuarterbackQuarterback is a position in American and Canadian football. Quarterbacks are members of the offensive team and line up directly behind the offensive line...
Kurt WarnerKurt WarnerKurtis Eugene "Kurt" Warner is a retired American football player. He played quarterback for three National Football League teams: the St. Louis Rams, the New York Giants, and the Arizona Cardinals. He was originally signed by the Green Bay Packers as an undrafted free agent in 1994 after playing...
's mother-in-law and father in-law. - Another EF4 tornado caused major damage to the town on February 5, 2008 in the 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreakThe 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak was a deadly tornado outbreak which affected the Southern United States and the lower Ohio Valley on February 5 and 6, 2008. The event began on Super Tuesday, while 24 U.S. states were holding primary elections and caucuses to select the presidential...
, the deadliest tornado outbreak in two decades.