Moses Coady
Encyclopedia
Rev. Dr. Moses Michael Coady (3 January 1882 – 28 July 1959) was a Roman Catholic priest, adult educator and co-operative entrepreneur best known for his instrumental role in the Antigonish Movement
Antigonish Movement
The Antigonish Movement blended adult education, co-operatives, microfinance and rural community development to help small, resource-based communities around Canada’s Maritimes improve their economic and social circumstances. A group of priests and educators, including Father Jimmy Tompkins, Father...

. Credited with introducing "an entirely new organizational technique: that of action based on preliminary study" to the co-operative movement in Canada, his work sparked a wave of co-operative development across the Maritimes
Maritimes
The Maritime provinces, also called the Maritimes or the Canadian Maritimes, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. On the Atlantic coast, the Maritimes are a subregion of Atlantic Canada, which also includes the...

 and credit union
Credit union
A credit union is a cooperative financial institution that is owned and controlled by its members and operated for the purpose of promoting thrift, providing credit at competitive rates, and providing other financial services to its members...

 development across English Canada. Due to his role and influence, he is often compared to Alphonse Desjardins
Alphonse Desjardins (co-operator)
Gabriel-Alphonse Desjardins , born in Lévis, Quebec, was the co-founder of the Caisses Populaires Desjardins , a forerunner of North American credit unions and community banks.- Early life :...

 in Québec
Quebec
Quebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....

. The influence of the movement he led spread across Canada in the 1930s and by the 1940s and 50s, to the Caribbean, Africa and Asia.

Early years

Born into a large Irish
Irish people
The Irish people are an ethnic group who originate in Ireland, an island in northwestern Europe. Ireland has been populated for around 9,000 years , with the Irish people's earliest ancestors recorded having legends of being descended from groups such as the Nemedians, Fomorians, Fir Bolg, Tuatha...

 Catholic family on a farm in the Margaree Valley
Margaree River
The Margaree River is a river on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia. The northeast branch of the river derives from the watershed of the Cape Breton Highlands, while the Southwest Margaree flows northeast from Lake Ainslie. The two branches join at Margaree Forks...

 of Cape Breton
Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia
Cape Breton Regional Municipality often shortened to simply CBRM, is a regional municipality in Nova Scotia's Cape Breton County.According to the 2006 Census of Canada, the population within the Cape Breton Regional Municipality is 102,250...

, Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...

, Moses was the eldest boy in a family of twelve. As a youth he was very concerned at the scale of outmigration from the valley: young men and women leaving for the steel mills and coal mines, or taking up jobs as domestics in the “Boston States”. He determined he would get a good education so he could help people make their farms more profitable and give them a reason to stay on the land.

Coady would draw on an unusual combination of gifts, having ‘the soul of a poet’ and ‘the mind of a mathematician’. After graduating top of his class at ‘St. FX’ (St. Francis Xavier University
St. Francis Xavier University
St. Francis Xavier University is a post-secondary institution located in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. The school was founded in 1853, but did not offer degrees until 1868. The university has approximately 5000 students.-History:...

) in Antigonish in 1905, Coady was persuaded by his first cousin Jimmy Tompkins
James Tompkins
Father Jimmy Tompkins was a Roman Catholic priest who founded the Antigonish Movement, a progressive effort that incorporated adult education, cooperatives and rural community development to aid the fishing and mining communities of northern and eastern Nova Scotia, Canada...

 to enter the priesthood. He followed Tompkins to Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...

, where he studied theology and philosophy.

Fighting a "weird pessimism"

After his ordination in Rome in 1910, Coady began teaching at St. FX. He put on special classes for students at risk of failing, and prided himself on being able to teach maths to anyone. He honed his considerable oratorical skills and developed a talent for making complex concepts easily understood.

Emigration from Nova Scotia continued, and Coady fought against a kind of “weird pessimism (that) so benumbed everybody that nothing has been attempted to break the spell.” In 1921 he helped organize the province’s school teachers. Typically earning about $35 a month, four out of five were young women who lost their jobs as soon as they married. At a meeting of the teachers’ fragile union in Truro
Truro
Truro is a city and civil parish in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The city is the centre for administration, leisure and retail in Cornwall, with a population recorded in the 2001 census of 17,431. Truro urban statistical area, which includes parts of surrounding parishes, has a 2001 census...

 that year he urged action and was elected secretary-treasurer. He spent much of the next 3 years expanding support for the union and founding/editing the Nova Scotia Teachers’ Bulletin.

The defining moment in Coady’s career came when he testified before a Canadian government commission in 1927. Drawing on his own experience and that of other Movement leaders like Jimmy Tompkins and Hugh MacPherson (an early co-operative pioneer) he maintained that the local economy could be revitalized if the right type of learning was cultivated in ordinary people: especially critical thinking, scientific methods of planning and production, and co-operative entrepreneurship.

Launching a movement

The report of the MacLean Commission was catalytic: in late 1928 St. FX organized an Extension Department to carry adult education to the people of the province, appointing Coady as its first director. The Canadian Department of Fisheries asked Coady to help the government “organize the fishermen”.

Through the years of the Antigonish Movement
Antigonish Movement
The Antigonish Movement blended adult education, co-operatives, microfinance and rural community development to help small, resource-based communities around Canada’s Maritimes improve their economic and social circumstances. A group of priests and educators, including Father Jimmy Tompkins, Father...

, financial support came from St. FX, the Carnegie Corporation and the Rockefeller Foundation
Rockefeller Foundation
The Rockefeller Foundation is a prominent philanthropic organization and private foundation based at 420 Fifth Avenue, New York City. The preeminent institution established by the six-generation Rockefeller family, it was founded by John D. Rockefeller , along with his son John D. Rockefeller, Jr...

 (two New York-based charities), and the local Scottish Catholic Society. Coady’s own staff resources were supplemented by collaboration with the Department of Fisheries, and later by widespread volunteerism in the villages.

The chronic decline in the fisheries gained new urgency with the onset of the Great Depression
Great Depression
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...

. Mines closed and thousands of miners were thrown out of work. Out-migration slowed, but for all the wrong reasons. Many jobless emigrants returned home.

Through the new department, Coady linked adult education
Adult education
Adult education is the practice of teaching and educating adults. Adult education takes place in the workplace, through 'extension' school or 'school of continuing education' . Other learning places include folk high schools, community colleges, and lifelong learning centers...

 with co-operative business ventures in the distinctive blend that became known as the Antigonish Movement. The immediate priorities of the Extension Department were the formation of ‘study clubs’, the emergence of new co-operatives and a school for leaders.

Study clubs gave ordinary Maritimers an opportunity to critically analyze the dynamics keeping them poor and to study possible solutions. The clubs helped people to plan and then successfully launch co-operatives in many fields: agricultural marketing, fish canning, dairy, retail sales and housing. Once the co-operatives were launched, the school for leaders kept their managers and directors continually stimulated with new and fresh ideas and business methods.

Coady also invested considerable energy in catalyzing and strengthening wholesale co-operatives around the Maritimes: including the United Maritime Fishermen, the United Fruit Companies of Nova Scotia and the Canadian Livestock Co-operatives (Maritimes). For example, he brokered conflicting interests and provided timely technical support in the formation of the United Maritime Fishermen. UMF was a trade association for the region’s fishing co-ops “with a strong adult education component”. It promoted canneries and provided cooperative marketing services to fishermen to help them capture a greater share of the profit from their catch.

High tide in Antigonish


The period from 1929 until World War II marked the high tide of the Antigonish Movement. For a discussion of the ideas and techniques of the movement, see the Antigonish Movement
Antigonish Movement
The Antigonish Movement blended adult education, co-operatives, microfinance and rural community development to help small, resource-based communities around Canada’s Maritimes improve their economic and social circumstances. A group of priests and educators, including Father Jimmy Tompkins, Father...

.

The leaders of the movement saw themselves as developing the full potential economic, social and cultural potential within the people of the region. “But perhaps the most important reason why the Antigonish movement was able to have a significant, lasting impact was its promotion of credit unions” which delivered microfinance
Microfinance
Microfinance is the provision of financial services to low-income clients or solidarity lending groups including consumers and the self-employed, who traditionally lack access to banking and related services....

. The farmers, fishers and miners who formed the backbone of the movement had little access to credit before the Great Depression, and lost what little they had as the downturn started to bite.

When the Antigonish movement looked for external allies in credit union development, it did not seek them from the movement in Quebec
Quebec
Quebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....

, where Alphonse Desjardins
Alphonse Desjardins (co-operator)
Gabriel-Alphonse Desjardins , born in Lévis, Quebec, was the co-founder of the Caisses Populaires Desjardins , a forerunner of North American credit unions and community banks.- Early life :...

 had founded the first credit union movement in North America three decades earlier. Instead, it looked across the border to the United States – to Roy Bergengren
Roy Bergengren
Roy F. Bergengren was an American attorney and pioneer of the United States credit union movement. Hired by Edward Filene in July 1921 to head the Credit Union National Extension Bureau, Bergengren carried out an ambitious legislative agenda that resulted in the enactment of the Federal Credit...

 and Credit Union National of America
Credit Union National Association
The Credit Union National Association, commonly known as CUNA , is a national trade association for both state- and federally-chartered credit unions located in the United States. CUNA provides member credit unions with trade association services, such as lobbying, professional development, and...

. Bergengren drafted a credit union law for Nova Scotia that was ratified by the provincial legislature in 1932.

That year Coady, MacDonald and Bergengren visited the fishing village of Broad Cove
Broad Cove, Newfoundland and Labrador
Broad Cove is located on King's Island, Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, Canada. Its geographical position is . Broad Cove was one of five communities located on King's Island. The other communities were: Tack's Beach, Best Harbour, Baker's Cove, Cooper's Cove and Yaulis Cove...

, where they helped the residents form the first credit union in the Maritimes.

By 1936 Coady was increasingly traveling beyond the Maritimes to Ontario
Ontario
Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....

, Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan is a prairie province in Canada, which has an area of . Saskatchewan is bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota....

 and British Columbia
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858...

, where his speeches and ideas helped ignite local credit union movements.

While results were not uniform, many of Coady’s initiatives proved successful. By 1944 United Maritime Fishermen represented 70 member fishing co-ops around Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. That year it sold $1.4 million in product, including $400,000 in lobsters into New England.

By 1945 there were over 400 credit unions in the Maritimes, with 70,000 members and $4.2 million in assets.

Later years

By the end of World War II credit unions and other co-operatives dotted the Maritimes, transforming the lives of thousands of people. Coady was honoured within the co-operative movement and beyond. He was featured on a national radio program of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, commonly known as CBC and officially as CBC/Radio-Canada, is a Canadian crown corporation that serves as the national public radio and television broadcaster...

 on co-operatives in 1940. In 1946 the Vatican
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...

 made him a Monsignor
Monsignor
Monsignor, pl. monsignori, is the form of address for those members of the clergy of the Catholic Church holding certain ecclesiastical honorific titles. Monsignor is the apocopic form of the Italian monsignore, from the French mon seigneur, meaning "my lord"...

. In 1949 Coady was asked to address the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations. He argued that environmental problems stemmed from ignorance of science, concentration of rural land ownership in the hands of a few, and exploitation of land primarily for profit.

In spite of the success and public recognition, Coady’s optimism and faith in people were tested in the later years of his life. Some co-operative leaders had committed fraud
Fraud
In criminal law, a fraud is an intentional deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual; the related adjective is fraudulent. The specific legal definition varies by legal jurisdiction. Fraud is a crime, and also a civil law violation...

, while others had sold out their community’s resources to vested interests. Some fishermen sold their fish for “half a cent less” to the very middlemen whose monopolistic behavior their co-ops had been formed to discipline.

As the co-ops gradually became larger and more professional, many ordinary members lost their connection, and reverted to the ‘weird pessimism’ that had bothered Coady in his youth.

During the 1940s and 1950s the Extension Department increasingly turned its attention to international development
International development
International development or global development is a concept that lacks a universally accepted definition, but it is most used in a holistic and multi-disciplinary context of human development — the development of greater quality of life for humans...

.

After suffering a major heart attack, Coady stepped down as Director of the Extension Department on Feb. 5th, 1952. He was 70, and would continue to work nationally and internationally as Director Emiratus of the Extension Department, now with 25 staff, until his death.

In his dying days, Coady told his bishop that he was at peace with God and that “If I die, I die happy in the thought that my blueprint is being realized much more surely than I ever had a right to expect.” On his death at age 77, two fishermen, two farmers, a miner and a steelworker carried his body to a grave on a hill overlooking Antigonish.

Coady’s only book -- Masters of Their Own Destiny – was an expression of the philosophy of the movement. Still in print, it has been translated into 7 languages. A volume of his speeches, The Man from Margaree, was published by Alexander Laidlaw in 1971. Numerous books have been written about both the man and the movement he led. During his life Coady received three honorary degrees (Boston, Ottawa, Ohio).

Criticisms

A recent biographer, Michael Welton (Little Mosie from the Margaree: A Biography of Moses Michael Coady, 2001) depicts Coady as a flawed man. “Coady’s agonal last few years reflect, I think, a profound state of hubris
Hubris
Hubris , also hybris, means extreme haughtiness, pride or arrogance. Hubris often indicates a loss of contact with reality and an overestimation of one's own competence or capabilities, especially when the person exhibiting it is in a position of power....

. No one can be certain how Coady deceived himself into thinking that he had a divine mission to liberate the peoples of the world.” Welton compares this millenarian mindset to that of contemporaries Hitler and Stalin. He writes that although Coady tried to mask his feelings behind a veneer of faith in democracy and ordinary people, the veneer wore thin later in his life, and Coady’s faith in others was replaced by a sense of betrayal and a tendency towards manipulation.

Another recent biographer, Jim Lotz (The Humble Giant: Moses Coady, Canada's Rural Revolutionary, 2005) criticizes Coady for precisely the opposite flaw: his unwillingness or perhaps inability to confront political corruption
Political corruption
Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption. Neither are illegal acts by...

 and rent seeking
Rent seeking
In economics, rent-seeking is an attempt to derive economic rent by manipulating the social or political environment in which economic activities occur, rather than by adding value...

 in his home province. “Coady’s belief in the power of ideas to change the hearts and actions of men and women came up against … the petty, patronage-ridden political system in Nova Scotia in the 1930s.”

Lotz also documents the difficult relations between Coady and the Acadian
Acadian
The Acadians are the descendants of the 17th-century French colonists who settled in Acadia . Acadia was a colony of New France...

 co-operative movement. For example, the Rev. Alexandre Boudreau, a co-operative leader from the region of Chéticamp in Cape Breton
Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia
Cape Breton County, officially, County Cape Breton, is a county in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island.Taking its name from Cape Breton, the most easterly point of the island which was called after the Bretons of Brittany, this municipality has what is probably the oldest...

 claimed that Coady kept Acadians out of important positions in the Antigonish Movement.

And while acknowledging their debt to Coady and to the study club approach, Acadians felt like outsiders in the New Brunswick Credit Union League. This led to the emergence of a parallel Acadian federation in New Brunswick in 1946. Today, the credit union system in this officially bilingual province has over twice the market penetration of the system in Nova Scotia. Its performance is largely driven by the 200,000 member Mouvement des caisses populaires acadiennes
Mouvement des caisses populaires acadiennes
The Mouvement des caisses populaires acadiennes is a credit union operating in the province of New Brunswick, Canada. It has approximately $2 billion in assets. It is a largely francophone organization but in recent years has been expanding into anglophone parts of the province...

.

In Nova Scotia the dynamism of the movement did not survive Coady’s generation. Of 60,000 credit union members in Nova Scotia at the time of Coady’s death in 1959, nearly half joined the movement during the period 1932-39, when Coady was spending most of his time in the villages. By contrast, the mantle of Alphonse Desjardins
Alphonse Desjardins (co-operator)
Gabriel-Alphonse Desjardins , born in Lévis, Quebec, was the co-founder of the Caisses Populaires Desjardins , a forerunner of North American credit unions and community banks.- Early life :...

 was inherited by very able successors like Cyrille Vaillancourt
Cyrille Vaillancourt
Cyrille Vaillancourt was a journalist, civil servant, businessman and political figure in Quebec. Vaillancourt played an important role in the development of the caisses populaires in Quebec...

 whose leadership and innovation continued to drive the Quebec movement from one success to the next.

In the words of Coady’s protégé Alexander Laidlaw “if co-operatives are to be a true people’s movement, they must generate their own power from within.” As historian Ian MacPherson
Ian MacPherson (historian)
Dr. Ian MacPherson is a Canadian historian, and a supporter of the co-operative movement.-Education:MacPherson received his B.A. from the University of Windsor in 1960. After working as a high school teacher for four years, he returned to school, earning his M.A. and Ph.D...

 shows in the case of British Columbia (another very successful province), enduring success results from multi-faceted roots – which in that case included active participation by an active agricultural cooperative system, urban unions, farmers organizations, the Catholic Church, private welfare groups and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation was a Canadian political party founded in 1932 in Calgary, Alberta, by a number of socialist, farm, co-operative and labour groups, and the League for Social Reconstruction...

.

Legacy

The Board of Governors of St. Francis Xavier University established the Coady International Institute
Coady International Institute
The Coady International Institute is located on the campus of St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. Established in 1959, the Coady International Institute is world-renowned as a centre of excellence in community leadership education. The Institute is named for one of Canada's...

 in Coady's honour less than six months after his death. The Institute has played a dynamic role in the emergence of credit unions throughout the world, especially in Africa. Since then, almost 4,000 community development practitioners from over 120 countries have studied at the campus in Antigonish, Nova Scotia.

Study clubs have been used widely in Africa, the Caribbean and South Asia in rural village
Village
A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet with the population ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand , Though often located in rural areas, the term urban village is also applied to certain urban neighbourhoods, such as the West Village in Manhattan, New...

s, and their method and approach anticipated the emergence of participatory rural appraisal
Participatory rural appraisal
Participatory rural appraisal is an approach used by non-governmental organizations and other agencies involved in international development...

 in the 1980s and 1990s. Because study clubs increased the willingness and ability of poorer people to participate, they were one of the most significant innovations in credit unions since the first were formed by Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen
Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen
Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen was a German mayor and cooperative pioneer. Several credit union systems and cooperative banks have been named after Raiffeisen, who pioneered rural credit unions.- Life :...

 in rural Germany in 1864.

Coady, like Raiffeisen, Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch
Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch
Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch was a German economist. He was responsible for the organizing of the world's first credit unions.-History:Schulze-Delitzsch was born at Delitzsch, in Prussian Saxony...

 and Alphonse Desjardins
Alphonse Desjardins (co-operator)
Gabriel-Alphonse Desjardins , born in Lévis, Quebec, was the co-founder of the Caisses Populaires Desjardins , a forerunner of North American credit unions and community banks.- Early life :...

 was part of a global movement in co-operative microfinance
Microfinance
Microfinance is the provision of financial services to low-income clients or solidarity lending groups including consumers and the self-employed, who traditionally lack access to banking and related services....

. Due to the poor performance of many community-based credit unions in the developing world, this movement lost its momentum in the 1970s, to be replaced by the more centralized approach characteristic of the microcredit
Microcredit
Microcredit is the extension of very small loans to those in poverty designed to spur entrepreneurship. These individuals lack collateral, steady employment and a verifiable credit history and therefore cannot meet even the most minimal qualifications to gain access to traditional credit...

 movement. However, the main successes in microcredit have been confined to urban or very densely populated rural areas. In recent years there has been a revival of interest in village-based and participatory approaches, such as the SHG
Self-help group (finance)
A self-help group is a village-based financial intermediary usually composed of 10–20 local women. Most self-help groups are located in India, though SHGs can also be found in other countries, especially in South Asia and Southeast Asia....

 movement in India and the ASCA
Rosca
Rosca is a Spanish and Portuguese bread dish eaten in Mexico, South America, and other areas. It is made with flour, salt, sugar, butter, yeast, water and seasonings. It is also called ka'ake and referred to as a "Syrian-style crack ring."Roscas de reyes is an oversized version colored with candy...

 movement in Africa to address the problem of financial services for poor rural farmers.

The Co-operative Union of Canada
Canadian Co-operative Association
The Canadian Co-operative Association is a national cooperative federation for Canadian co-operatives headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario. CCA represents over 2000 co-operatives and credit unions with 9 million members...

 under the leadership of George Keen spread both the philosophy and the tools of the Antigonish Movement widely across Canada. Led by co-operative entrepreneurs like Jake Siemens
Jake Siemens
Jacob John Siemens , was a Canadian farmer, co-operative leader, social entrepreneur, and adult educator. Born and raised a Mennonite near Altona, Manitoba, Siemens taught for 10 years before taking over the family farm in 1929...

, adult education became a priority in western Canada with the foundation of the Western Co-operative College in Saskatoon
Saskatoon
Saskatoon is a city in central Saskatchewan, Canada, on the South Saskatchewan River. Residents of the city of Saskatoon are called Saskatonians. The city is surrounded by the Rural Municipality of Corman Park No. 344....

 in 1955. (1893-1952), the Assistant Director of the Extension Department under Coady, rose to national leadership in the Union in 1945, from whence he led an increasing international engagement on behalf of Canadians. Coady described MacDonald as a brilliant man, capable of organizing and maintaining a far-flung network of study clubs and cooperatives, who had a “keen and penetrating mind, always ahead of the people yet practical enough to keep within the range of what was possible. He was radical enough in other words to be progressive, and, conservative enough to be sane.”

See also

  • St. Francis Xavier University
    St. Francis Xavier University
    St. Francis Xavier University is a post-secondary institution located in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. The school was founded in 1853, but did not offer degrees until 1868. The university has approximately 5000 students.-History:...

  • Father James "Jimmy" Tompkins
    James Tompkins
    Father Jimmy Tompkins was a Roman Catholic priest who founded the Antigonish Movement, a progressive effort that incorporated adult education, cooperatives and rural community development to aid the fishing and mining communities of northern and eastern Nova Scotia, Canada...

    , a Catholic priest and leader in the Antigonish Movement
    Antigonish Movement
    The Antigonish Movement blended adult education, co-operatives, microfinance and rural community development to help small, resource-based communities around Canada’s Maritimes improve their economic and social circumstances. A group of priests and educators, including Father Jimmy Tompkins, Father...

  • Credit unions
  • Adult education
    Adult education
    Adult education is the practice of teaching and educating adults. Adult education takes place in the workplace, through 'extension' school or 'school of continuing education' . Other learning places include folk high schools, community colleges, and lifelong learning centers...

  • Rural community development
    Rural community development
    Rural community development encompasses a range of approaches and activities that aim to improve the welfare and livelihoods of people living in rural areas. As a branch of community development, these approaches pay attention to social issues particularly community organizing. This is in contrast...

  • Participatory rural appraisal
    Participatory rural appraisal
    Participatory rural appraisal is an approach used by non-governmental organizations and other agencies involved in international development...


External links

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