The
Mongol invasion of Rus'Rus is an ethno-cultural region in Eastern Europe inhabited by Eastern Slavs. Historically, it comprises the northern part of Ukraine, the north-western part of Russia, Belarus and some eastern parts of Poland and Slovakia....
was heralded by the
Battle of the Kalka RiverThe Battle of the Kalka River took place on May 31, 1223, between the Mongol Empire and Kiev, Galich, and several other Rus' principalities and the Cumans, under the command of Mstislav the Bold and Mstislav III of Kiev...
in 1223 between the Mongolian generals
SubutaiSubutai was the primary military strategist and general of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He directed more than 20 campaigns, during which he conquered or overran more territory than any other commander in history...
and
JebeChepe or Chepe Noyan or Jebe or Jebe Noyan or Jebei or Jebei Noyan was one of the prominent generals of Genghis Khan...
's reconnaissance unit and the combined force of several Rus' princes. After fifteen years of peace, it was followed by
Batu KhanBatu Khan Batu Khan Batu Khan was a Mongol ruler of the Ulus of Jochi (or Golden Horde), the sub-khanate of the Mongol Empire, and the founder of the Blue Horde. Batu was a son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan...
's full-scale invasion during 1237 to 1240. The invasion, facilitated by the breakup of
Kievan Rus'Kievan Rus , usually written simply Kievan Rus and sometimes Kyivan Rus, was a medieval state which existed from approximately 880 to the middle of the 13th century...
in the 12th century, had incalculable ramifications for the history of
Eastern EuropeEastern Europe is a region lying in the Eastern part of Europe. The term is highly context-dependent and there are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region"...
, including the division of the East Slavic people into three separate nations and the rise of the
Grand Duchy of MoscowThe Grand Duchy of Moscow was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and 1547. The Grand Duchy of Moscow, as the state is known in Russian records, has been referred to by many Western sources as Muscovy. However, this term is also sometimes applied to the Tsardom of Russia...
.
Background
As it was undergoing fragmentation, Kievan Rus' faced the unexpected eruption of an irresistible foreign foe coming from the mysterious regions of the
Far EastThe Far East is a term used in English mostly equivalent to East Asia and Southeast Asia, sometimes to the inclusion of South Asia for economic and cultural reasons."Far East" came into use in European geopolitical discourse in...
. "For our sins", writes the
Rus'The Rus' were the historic population of the medieval Rus' Khaganate and Kievan Rus'.One of the earliest written sources mentioning the people called Rus in the form of Rhos dates back to year 839 AD in a Royal Frankish chronicle Annales Bertiniani, identified as a Germanic tribe called Swedes...
chronicler of the time, "unknown nations arrived. No one knew their origin or whence they came, or what religion they practiced. That is known only to God, and perhaps to wise men learned in books".
The princes of Rus' first heard of the coming Mongol warriors from the nomadic
CumansCumans were a nomadic Turkic people who inhabited a shifting area north of the Black Sea known as Cumania along the Volga River. They eventually settled to the west of the Black Sea, influencing the politics of Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, Moldavia, and Wallachia...
. Previously known for pillaging settlers on the frontier, the nomads now preferred peaceful relations, warning their neighbors: "These terrible strangers have taken our country, and tomorrow they will take yours if you do not come and help us". In response to this call,
Mstislav the BoldMstislav Mstislavich the Bold was one of the most popular and active princes of Kievan Rus' in the decades preceding Mongol invasion of Rus. He was the maternal grandfather of Alexander Nevsky and the prince Leo of Galicia....
and
Mstislav Romanovich the OldMstislav Romanovich the Old , Prince of Pskov , Smolensk , Belgorod , Halych and Grand Prince of Kiev...
joined forces and set out eastward to meet the foe, only to be routed in 1223 at the
Battle of the Kalka RiverThe Battle of the Kalka River took place on May 31, 1223, between the Mongol Empire and Kiev, Galich, and several other Rus' principalities and the Cumans, under the command of Mstislav the Bold and Mstislav III of Kiev...
, a defeat remembered to this day in
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
and
UkraineUkraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east; Belarus to the north; Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; Romania and Moldova to the southwest; and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south. The city of Kiev is both the capital and the largest city of...
.
Although this defeat left the Kievan principality at the mercy of invaders, the Mongol forces retreated and did not reappear for thirteen years, during which time the princes of Rus' went on quarreling and fighting as before, until they were startled by a new and much more formidable invading force than at.
Invasion of Batu Khan
The vast Mongol hordes of around 35,000 mounted archers, commanded by
Batu KhanBatu Khan Batu Khan Batu Khan was a Mongol ruler of the Ulus of Jochi (or Golden Horde), the sub-khanate of the Mongol Empire, and the founder of the Blue Horde. Batu was a son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan...
and
SubutaiSubutai was the primary military strategist and general of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He directed more than 20 campaigns, during which he conquered or overran more territory than any other commander in history...
, crossed the
Volga RiverThe Volga is the largest river in Europe in terms of length, discharge, and watershed. It flows through western Russia, and is widely viewed as the national river of Russia. Out of the twenty largest cities of Russia, eleven, including its capital Moscow, are situated in the Volga's drainage basin...
and
invaded Volga BulgariaThe Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria lasted from 1223 to 1236.-The Mongol campaigns:In 1223, after defeating Russian and Kipchak armies at the Battle of Kalka, a Mongol army under the generals Subutai and Jebe was sent to subdue Volga Bulgaria. At that point in history Genghis Khan's troops were...
in the autumn of 1236. It took them a year to extinguish the resistance of the
Volga BulgariaVolga Bulgaria or Volga-Kama Bolghar, is a historic Bulgar state that existed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers in what is now Russia. Today, both the Republics of Tatarstan and Chuvashia are considered to be descendants of Volga...
ns, the Kypchaks and the
AlaniThe Alans or Alani were a group of Sarmatian tribes, nomadic pastoralists of the 1st millennium AD who spoke an Eastern Iranian language which derived from Scytho-Sarmatian and which in turn evolved into modern Ossetian.-Name:The various forms of Alan — Greek: Αλανοί, Αλαννοί; Chinese: 阿蘭聊...
.
In November 1237, Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of
Yuri IIYuri II , also known as George II of Vladimir or Georgy II Vsevolodovich , was the fourth Grand Prince of Vladimir who presided over Vladimir-Suzdal at the time of the Mongol invasion of Russia.He was the third and best-loved son of Vsevolod III and Maria Shvarnovna.He first...
of
VladimirVladimir is a city in Russia, located on the Klyazma River, to the east of Moscow along the M7 motorway. It is the administrative center of Vladimir Oblast. Population: Vladimir was one of the medieval capitals of Russia, and two of its cathedrals are a World Heritage Site...
and demanded his submission. A month later, the hordes besieged
RyazanRyazan is a city in the Central Federal District of Russia and the administrative center of Ryazan Oblast. It is on the Oka River south-east of Moscow. Its population is 521,560 ; 514,638...
. After six days of bloody battle, the city was totally annihilated. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the invaders, but they were soundly defeated. Having burnt down
KolomnaKolomna is an ancient city in Moscow Oblast, Russia, situated at the confluence of the Moskva and Oka Rivers. The city was founded in 1177. It is currently the administrative center of Kolomensky District of Moscow Oblast...
and
MoscowMoscow is the capital and the largest city of Russia. It is also the largest metropolitan area in Europe, and ranks among the largest urban areas in the world. Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the world, a...
, the horde laid siege to Vladimir on February 4, 1238. Three days later, the capital of
Vladimir-SuzdalVladimir-Suzdal Principality or Vladimir-Suzdal Rus’ was a principality which succeeded Kievan Rus' as the most powerful Rus' state in the late 12th century and lasted until the late 14th century...
was taken and burnt to the ground. The royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince hastily retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, he mustered a new army, which was totally exterminated by the Mongols in the
Battle of the Sit RiverThe Battle of the Sit River was fought in the northern part of the present-day Yaroslavl Oblast of Russia on March 4, 1238 between the Mongol Hordes of Batu Khan and the Rus' people under Grand Prince Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal during the Mongol invasion of Rus...
on March 4.
Thereupon Batu Khan divided his army into smaller units, which ransacked fourteen cities of modern-day Russia:
RostovRostov is one of the oldest towns in Russia and an important tourist centre of the so-called Golden Ring. It is located on the shores of Lake Nero in Yaroslavl Oblast, 202 km to the north east of Moscow. Population:...
,
UglichUglich is a historic town in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, on the Volga River. Population: A local tradition dates the town's origins to 937. It was first documented in 1148 as Ugliche Pole...
,
YaroslavlYaroslavl is a city in Russia, the administrative center of Yaroslavl Oblast, located north-east of Moscow. The historical part of the city, a World Heritage Site, is located at the confluence of the Volga and the Kotorosl Rivers. Population:...
,
KostromaKostroma is an historic city in central Russia, the administrative centre of Kostroma Oblast. A part of the Golden ring of the Russian towns, it is located at the confluence of the Volga and Kostroma Rivers...
,
KashinKashin is a town in Tver Oblast, Russia, located around a rural agricultural area on the Kashinka River 204 km away from Moscow and 25 km away from Kalyazin. Kashin is located close to the borders of Tver, Moscow, and Yaroslavl Oblasts. Population: 17,299 ; 21,186 ; 18,000...
, Ksnyatin,
GorodetsGorodets is a town in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the left bank of the Volga River, north-west of Nizhny Novgorod. In the past, the town was also sometimes referred to as Gorodets-Radilov , or simply Radilov. It is the administrative center of Gorodetsky District...
,
GalichGalich or Halych may refer to:*Alexander Galich , a Russian dissident bard*Galich, Russia, a town in Kostroma Oblast, Russia...
,
Pereslavl-ZalesskyPereslavl-Zalessky or Pereyaslavl-Zalessky , is a town in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia. It was called Pereyaslavl until the 15th century. The town is located on the southeastern shore of the Lake Pleshcheyevo at the mouth of the Trubezh River...
, Yuriev-Polsky,
DmitrovDmitrov is a town in Moscow Oblast, Russia, located to the north of Moscow. It is located on the Yakhroma River and the Moscow Canal, which connects the Russian capital with the Volga River. Population: 61,500 ; 62,219 ....
,
VolokolamskVolokolamsk is the town and administrative center of Volokolamsky District of Moscow Oblast, Russia, located on the Gorodenka River, not far from its confluence with the Lama River, north-west of Moscow. Population: 16,700 ; -History:...
,
TverTver is a city in Russia, the administrative center of Tver Oblast. Population: 405,500 ; 408,903 . Tver, which is located north of Moscow, was formerly the capital of a powerful medieval state and a model provincial town in Imperial Russia with population of 60,000 onJanuary 14, 1913...
, and
TorzhokTorzhok is a town in Tver Oblast, Russia, famous for its folk craft of goldwork embroidery. Population: -Geography:The town is situated on the Tvertsa River, 38 miles northwest of Tver, and 145 miles from Moscow...
. The most difficult to take was the small town of
KozelskKozelsk is a town in Kaluga Oblast, Russia, located on the Zhizdra River , 72 km southwest of Kaluga. As of 2002 Census, the town had a population of 19,907.-History:...
, whose boy-prince Vasily, son of Titus, and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks, killing 4,000. As the story goes, at the news of the Mongol approach, the whole town of
KitezhKitezh was a legendary town in what is today the Voskresensky District of the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in Russia.-The legend: The legend has it that Georgy II, Grand Prince of Vladimir, first built the town of Maly Kitezh on the Volga River...
with all its inhabitants was submerged into a lake, where, as legend has it, it may be seen to this day. The only major cities to escape destruction were Novgorod and
PskovPskov is an ancient city located in the north-west of Russia about east from the Estonian border, on the Velikaya River. The city of Pskov serves as the administrative center of Pskov Oblast...
. Refugees from southern Rus' gravitated mostly to the northeast, in the forest region with poor soils between the northern Volga and
Oka RiverOka is a river in central Russia, the largest right tributary of the Volga. It flows through the regions of Oryol, Tula, Kaluga, Moscow, Ryazan, Vladimir and Nizhny Novgorod and is navigable over a large part of its total length, as far upstream as to the town of Kaluga. Its length exceeds 1500 km...
s.
In the summer of 1238, Batu Khan devastated the
CrimeaCrimea or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea is the only autonomous republic of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name.The territory of Crimea was conquered and controlled many times throughout its history...
and pacified
MordoviaRepublic of Mordovia or Mordvinia is a federal subject of Russia . The direct romanization of the republic's name is Respublika Mordoviya....
. In the winter of 1239, he sacked
ChernigovChernihiv, , also known as Chernigov , is a historic city in northern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Chernihiv Oblast , as well as of the surrounding Chernihivskyi Raion within the oblast...
and
PereyaslavPereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi is a town located where Alta River flows into Trubizh River in the Kiev Oblast in central Ukraine. Serving as the administrative center of the Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi Raion , the town itself is also designated as a separate raion within the oblast...
. After many days of siege, the horde stormed
KievKiev or Kyiv , is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300...
in December 1240. Despite the fierce resistance of Danylo of Halych, Batu Khan managed to take two of his principal cities,
HalychHalych is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. The town gave its name to the historic province and kingdom of Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, of which it was the capital until the early 14th century, when the seat of the local princes was moved to Lviv...
and
Volodymyr-VolynskyiVolodymyr-Volynskyi or Vladimir-Volynsky is a historic city located in the what is now Volyn Oblast , in north-western Ukraine...
. The Mongols then resolved to "reach the ultimate sea", where they could proceed no further, and invaded
HungaryHungary , in English officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe, bordered by Austria, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. Its capital is Budapest. Hungary is a member of OECD, NATO, EU, V4 and is a Schengen state...
and
PolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe . Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
.
The age of the Tatar yoke
- See also: Timeline of the Tataro-Mongol Yoke in Russia.
This time the invaders came to stay, and they built for themselves a capital, called
SaraiSarai Batu was a capital city of the Golden Horde and one of the largest cities of the medieval world, with a population estimated by the 2005 Britannica at 600,000....
, on the lower Volga. Here the commander of the
Golden HordeThe Ulus of Jochi or the Golden Horde is an East Slavic designation for the Mongol—later Turkicized—Muslim khanate established in the western part of the Mongol Empire after the Mongol invasion of Rus' in the 1240s: present-day Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Kazakhstan, and the Caucasus...
, as the western section of the
Mongol empireThe Mongol Empire was an empire from the 13th and 14th century spanning from Eastern Europe across Asia. It is the largest contiguous empire in the history of the world...
was called, fixed his golden headquarters and represented the majesty of his sovereign the grand khan who lived with the Great Horde in the
Orkhon ValleyOrkhon Valley Cultural Landscape sprawls along the banks of the Orkhon River in Central Mongolia, some 360 km west from the capital Ulaanbaatar...
of the Amur. Here they had their headquarters and held parts of Rus in subjection for nearly three centuries. All of Russian states submitted to the Mongol rule, including Novgorod,
SmolenskSmolensk is a Russian city and the administrative centre of Smolensk Oblast, located on the Dnieper River. Situated west-southwest of Moscow, this walled city was destroyed several times throughout its long history since it was on the invasion routes of both Napoleon and Hitler. Today, Smolensk...
,
GalichGalich or Halych may refer to:*Alexander Galich , a Russian dissident bard*Galich, Russia, a town in Kostroma Oblast, Russia...
and
PskovPskov is an ancient city located in the north-west of Russia about east from the Estonian border, on the Velikaya River. The city of Pskov serves as the administrative center of Pskov Oblast...
.
The term by which this subjection is commonly designated, the Mongol or Tatar yoke, suggests ideas of terrible oppression, but in reality these nomadic invaders from
MongoliaMongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It borders Russia to the north and the People's Republic of China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only 24 miles from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator,...
were not such cruel, oppressive taskmasters as is generally supposed. In the first place, they never settled in the country, and they had little direct dealing with the inhabitants. In accordance with the admonitions of Genghis to his children and grandchildren, they retained their pastoral mode of life, so that the subject races, agriculturists, and dwellers in towns, were not disturbed in their ordinary avocations.
In religious matters they were extremely tolerant. When they first appeared in Europe, they were
ShamanistsShamanism comprises a range of traditional beliefs and practices concerned with communication with the spirit world. It is a prominent term in anthropological research. A practitioner of shamanism is known as a shaman, , noun...
, and as such they had naturally no religious fanaticism. Thus, after they adopted
IslamIslam Islam Islam ( al-’islām,
[There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or , and whether the a is pronounced as in father, as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) as in the a of sofa...]
they remained as tolerant as before, and the khan of the Golden Horde, who first became a Muslim, allowed the Rus to found a
Christian bishopricKrutitsy Metochion , full name: Krutitsy Patriarchal Metochion is an operating ecclesiastical estate of Russian Orthodox Church, located in Tagansky District of Moscow, Russia, 3 kilometers south-east from the Kremlin. The name Krutitsy , i.e. steep river banks, originally meant the hills...
in his capital.
Nogai KhanNogai , also called Isa Nogai, was a general and de facto ruler of the Golden Horde and a great-great-grandson of Genghis Khan. His grandfather was Baul/Teval Khan, the 7th son of Jochi...
, half a century later, married a daughter of the
ByzantineThe Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered on the capital of Constantinople, and ruled by Emperors in direct and de jure succession to the ancient Roman Emperors...
emperor, and gave his own daughter in marriage to a Rus prince, Theodor the Black. Some modern Russian historians (most notably, the Soviet era historian and "Neo-Eurasianist" ideologist
Lev GumilevLev Nikolayevich Gumilyov , also known as Lev Gumilev, was a Russian historian, ethnologist and anthropologist...
) even postulate there was no invasion at all. According to them, the Rus princes concluded a defensive alliance with the Horde in order to repel attacks of the fanatical
Teutonic KnightsThe Order of the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem , or for short the Teutonic Order , is a German Roman Catholic religious order. It was formed to aid Catholics on their pilgrimages to the Holy Land and to establish hospitals to care for the sick and injured...
, which posed a much greater threat to Rus religion and culture.
These represent the bright side of Tatar rule. It had its dark side also. So long as a great horde of nomads was encamped on the frontier, the country was liable to be invaded by an overwhelming force. Fortunately, these invasions were not frequent but when they occurred they caused an incalculable amount of devastation and suffering. In the intervals the people had to pay a fixed tribute. At first it was collected in a rough-and-ready fashion by Tatar tax-gatherers, by about 1259 it was regulated by a census of the population, and finally its collection was entrusted to the native princes, so that the people were no longer brought into direct contact with the Tatar officials.
The invasion's impact on historical development
The influence of the Mongol invasion on the territories of Kievan Rus' was uneven. Centers such as Kiev never recovered from the devastation of the initial attack. The
Novgorod RepublicThe Novgorod Republic was a large mediæval Russian state which stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains between the 12th and 15th centuries, centred on the city of Novgorod...
continued to prosper, however, and new entities, the cities of Moscow and Tver, began to flourish under the Mongols. Although
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n forces defeated the Golden Horde at the
Battle of KulikovoThe Battle of Kulikovo was fought by the Tartaro-Mongols and the Russians. The battle took place on September 8, 1380 at the Kulikovo Field near the Don River and resulted in a Russian victory...
in 1380, Mongol domination of parts of Rus territories, with the requisite demands of tribute, continued until the
Great standing on the Ugra riverThe Great Standoff on the Ugra river The Great Standoff on the Ugra river The Great Standoff on the Ugra river ( in Russian, also (Ugorschina in English, derived from Ugra) was a standoff between the forces of Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, and the Grand Prince Ivan III of Russia in 1480, which...
in 1480.
Historians have debated the long-term influence of Mongol rule on Rus society. The Mongols have been blamed for the destruction of Kievan Rus', the breakup of the ancient Rus nationality into three components, and the introduction of the concept of "
oriental despotismOriental despotism is a term used to describe a despotic form of government that opposes the western tradition. Historically, the term's meaning has varied and today it is hardly ever used at all, largely because of all the issues surrounding the concept of orientalism.- Origins in Ancient Greece...
" into Russia. But some historians agree that Kievan Rus' was not a homogeneous political, cultural, or ethnic entity and that the Mongols merely accelerated fragmentation that had begun before the invasion. Historians also credit the Mongol regime with an important role in the development of Muscovy as a state. Under Mongol occupation, for example, Muscovy developed its
mestnichestvoIn Russian history, Mestnichesvo was a feudal hierarchical system in Russia from 15th till the 17th century. The name comes from "Место" in Russian...
hierarchy,
postalMail, or post, is a method for transmitting information and tangible objects, wherein written documents, typically enclosed in envelopes and also small packages are delivered to destinations around the world. Anything sent through the postal system is called mail or post.In principle, a postal...
road network,
censusA "census" is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population.In other words every 10 years...next one would be in 2010 The term is used mostly in connection with...
, fiscal system, and military organization.
Certainly, it can be (and often is) argued that without the Mongol destruction of Kievan Rus' that Moscow, and subsequently the
Russian EmpireThe Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
, would not have risen. Trade routes with the East came through the Rus lands, making them a center for trade from both worlds. In short, the Mongol influence, while destructive in the extreme to their enemies, had a significant long term effect on the rise of modern
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
,
UkraineUkraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east; Belarus to the north; Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; Romania and Moldova to the southwest; and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south. The city of Kiev is both the capital and the largest city of...
and
BelarusBelarus is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the north. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno , Gomel , Mahilyow and Vitebsk...
.
Influence of the Mongol invasion on Russian society
A significant number of historians consider the oppression of Rus' by the Mongols to be the major cause of what is sometimes called "the East-West gap" - approximately 200 years delay in introducing major social, political and economical reforms and scientific innovations in Russia comparing to Western Europe. Specifically, the isolation from the West may have caused Russia's later non-involvement in the
RenaissanceThe Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe...
, the
Protestant ReformationThe Protestant Reformation was a Christian reform movement in Europe which is generally deemed to have begun with Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 although a number of precursors such as Jan Hus predate that event...
, and failure to develop a
middle classThe middle class are any class in the middle of a social schema. In Weberian socio-economic terms they are the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socioeconomically between the working class and upper class. In Marxist terms, middle class commonly refers to either the...
.Some argue that the yoke had a severe destructive influence on the delicate system of unwritten laws regulating everyday life of society. For instance, Valeriya Novodvorskaya mentions that the death penalty, long-term imprisonment and tortures had not existed in Rus' before the Mongols invaded the country. Over half the population of Rus may have died during the Mongol invasions. However,
Colin McEvedyColin Peter McEvedy , was a British psychiatrist, historian, demographer and non-fiction author. He was born in Salford, Lancashire and died in London....
(
Atlas of World Population History, 1978) estimates the population of Russia-in-Europe dropped from 7.5 million prior to the invasion to 7 million afterwards.
The period of Mongol rule over Russia included significant cultural and interpersonal contacts between the Russian and Mongolian ruling classes. By 1450, the Tatar language had become fashionable in the court of the Grand Prince of Moscow, Vasily II, who was accused of excessive love of the Tatars and their speech. Many Russian
boyarA boyar or bolyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal Moscovian, Kievan Rusian, Bulgarian, Wallachian, and Moldavian aristocracies, second only to the ruling princes , from the 10th century through the 17th century.The rank has lived on as a surname in Russia and Finland, where it is...
(noble) families traced their descent from the Mongols or Tatars, including Veliaminov-Zernov,
GodunovGodunov is a Russian name.Godunov can refer to the following:* Boris Godunov a regent of Russia from 1584 to 1598* Sergei K. Godunov a Russian born mathematician who contributed to Finite volume method...
, Arseniev and Bakhmetev. In a survey of Russian noble families of the 17th century, over 15% of the Russian noble families had Tatar or Oriental origins. In the religious sphere, St. Paphnutius of Borovsk was the grandson of a Mongol
baskakA Darughachi was originally an official in the Mongol Empire in charge of taxes and administration in a certain province...
, or tax collector, while a nephew of
khanKhan is an originally Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, first used by medieval Altaic-speaking nomadic tribes living to the north of China and the center of Rumelia Kailar yoruks are mentioned as yorukkhans in Ottoman arvhives...
Bergai of the
Golden HordeThe Ulus of Jochi or the Golden Horde is an East Slavic designation for the Mongol—later Turkicized—Muslim khanate established in the western part of the Mongol Empire after the Mongol invasion of Rus' in the 1240s: present-day Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Kazakhstan, and the Caucasus...
converted to Christianity and became known as the monk St. Peter Tsarevich of the Horde
Successors of the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was succeeded by the
KazanThe Khanate of Kazan was a medieval Tatar state which occupied the territory of former Volga Bulgaria between 1438 and 1552. The khanate covered contemporary Tatarstan, Mari El, Chuvashia, Mordovia, parts of Udmurtia and Bashkortostan; its capital was the city of Kazan...
, Astrakhan, Crimean, and
Siberian khanateThe Khanate of Sibir was a Tatar Turkic khanate in the later Russian Siberia. The Khanate had an ethnically diverse population of Siberian Tatars, Khanty, Mansi, Nenets and Selkup people.-History:...
s, as well as the
Nogai HordeThe Nogai Horde was a confederation of Turkic nomads that occupied the Pontic-Caspian steppe from about 1500 until they were pushed south by the Russians in the 17th century. 'Nogai' is more of an ethnonym than an ethnic group...
, all of which were eventually conquered by the Russian Empire.
See also
- Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria
The Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria lasted from 1223 to 1236.-The Mongol campaigns:In 1223, after defeating Russian and Kipchak armies at the Battle of Kalka, a Mongol army under the generals Subutai and Jebe was sent to subdue Volga Bulgaria. At that point in history Genghis Khan's troops were...
- Tatar invasions
The Mongol invasion of Europe from the east took place over the course of three centuries, from the Middle Ages to the early modern period.The terms Tatars or Tartars are applied to nomadic Turkic peoples who, themselves, were conquered by Mongols and incorporated into their horde...
- Mongol occupation of Eastern Europe
Sources
Full Collection of Russian Annals, St. Petersburg, 1908 and Moscow, 2001, ISBN 5-94457-011-3.