Adama bi Ardo Hassana (c. 1786 – c. 1847), more commonly known as
Modibo Adama, was a
FulaniFula or Fulani or Fulbe are an ethnic group of people spread over many countries, predominantly in West Africa, but found also in Central Africa and Sudanese North Africa...
scholar and holy warrior. He led a
jihadJihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād is a noun meaning "struggle." Jihad appears frequently in the Qur'an and common usage as the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of Allah "...
into the region of Fumbina (in modern day
CameroonThe Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the Bight of...
and
NigeriaNigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger...
), opening the region for Fulani colonisation. As a result of Adama's constant warring, the Fulani today make up the largest
ethnic groupAn ethnic group is a group of humans whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage that is real or presumed.Ethnic identity is further marked by the researcher Seng Yang in the recognition from others of a group's distinctiveness and the recognition of common cultural,...
in Northern Cameroon, and
IslamIslam Islam Islam ( al-’islām,
[There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or , and whether the a is pronounced as in father, as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) as in the a of sofa...]
is the dominant religion. The wars also forced many peoples south into the forest region.
Adama studied in Hausaland and earned the title "Modibo" ("Lettered One") for his scholarship. Upon finishing his studies, he returned home to Gurina and learned of the jihad declared by Fulani mystic
Usman dan FodioShaihu Usman dan Fodio , born Usuman ɓii Foduye, was the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate in 1809, a religious teacher, writer and Islamic reformer. Dan Fodio was one of a class of urbanized ethnic Fulani living in the Hausa States in what is today northern Nigeria...
. When he accompanied a delegation to visit Usman, the leader ordered Adama to extend his jihad east as "
LamidoLamido is the Anglicisation of a term from the Fula language or Fulfulde, used to refer to a ruler. In the language it is properly laamiiɗo , derived from the verbal root "laam-" meaning "to rule or to lead", and hence may be translated more specifically as "leader"...
Fumbina" (Ruler of the Southlands).
Adama raised an army and attacked Bata settlements near Gurin. He took the villages, and many more traditional Fulbe leaders and new soldiers came to his side. He next took on
MandaraThe Mandara Kingdom was a West African kingdom in the Mandara Mountains of what is today Cameroon. The Mandarawa people are descended from the kingdom's inhabitants.-History:...
, the largest and best organised state in the region. He swept over several smaller settlements and eventually conquered the Mandara capital,
DuloDulo may refer to:#The Dulo clan or House of Dulo, from which descended the earliest Bulgarian Dynasty;#Dulo, Mandara, the capital of the historical African state of Mandara in what is now Cameroon....
, with ease. While his men celebrated, however, the Mandara army counterattacked and recaptured the town.
Though he fought many more campaigns, Adama now spent most of his time in
YolaYola may refer to:* Yola language, extinct language of County Wexford, Ireland* Yola , album by Eleanor McEvoy* Yola, Nigeria, capital of Adamawa State* Yowla, folk dance native to the United Arab Emirates* Yola, boat in the Grand Theft Auto series...
, which became his capital. He set about creating the administrative structure of his new state, which he named
AdamawaAdamawa or the Adamawa Emirate was a traditional emirate located in Fumbina, what is now the Adamawa State, Nigeria and the three northern provinces of Cameroon . It was founded by Modibbo Adama, a commander of Sheikh Usman dan Fodio, the man who began the Fulani jihad in 1809. The capital was...
after himself. Adama ruled the empire, subordinate only to Usman dan Fodio in
SokotoSokoto is a city located in the extreme northwest of Nigeria, near to the confluence of the Sokoto River and the Rima River. As of 2006 it has a population of 583,039...
. Below him lay the heads of major settlements, known as lamibe (singular:
lamidoLamido is the Anglicisation of a term from the Fula language or Fulfulde, used to refer to a ruler. In the language it is properly laamiiɗo , derived from the verbal root "laam-" meaning "to rule or to lead", and hence may be translated more specifically as "leader"...
). The
villageA village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet, but smaller than a town or city. Though often located in rural areas, the term urban village is also applied to certain urban neighbourhoods, such as the West Village in Manhattan, New York City and the Saifi Village in...
formed the smallest unit of government.
Upon Adama's death in 1847, his son Muhammadu Lawal became
EmirEmir , is a high title of nobility or office, used throughout the Arab World and historically in 19th-century Afghanistan and also in the medieval Muslim World...
of Adamawa. The empire was not to last, however, as
colonialColonialism is the building and maintaining of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. Sovereignty over the colony is claimed by the metropole...
battles and division eventually destroyed the independent Fulani state. The conquest had long-term repercussions, however. The Fulani became the dominant ethnic group in the region, and Islam the major religion. The herdsmen altered the land to be more suitable for herding
cattleCattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
, their primary pursuit. The jihad also pushed those peoples who had lived on the
Adamawa PlateauThe Adamawa Plateau is a plateau region in west-central Africa stretching from south-eastern Nigeria through north-central Cameroon to the Central African Republic. The plateau was named after Fulani Muslim leader Modibo Adama. The part of the plateau that lies in Nigeria is more popularly known...
south into the forest, the single most important event in the populating of Southern Cameroon.
Early life
Adama came from a respected but humble family; his father, Hassana, was a well regarded scholar of
IslamIslam Islam Islam ( al-’islām,
[There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or , and whether the a is pronounced as in father, as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) as in the a of sofa...]
and minor
noblemanNobility is a state-privileged status which is generally hereditary, but which may also be personal only. Titles of nobility are usually associated with present or former monarchies. The term originally referred to those who were "known" or "notable" and was applied to the highest social class in...
from Ba'ajo. Adama travelled to
BornuBornu may refer to:* Bornu Empire, a historical state of West Africa* Borno State, Nigeria...
for his education, where he stayed for some time under the tutelage of Mallam Kiari. He continued his studies in Hausaland (modern Northern
NigeriaNigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger...
), where legend says his teacher was the Fulani Shehu
Usman dan FodioShaihu Usman dan Fodio , born Usuman ɓii Foduye, was the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate in 1809, a religious teacher, writer and Islamic reformer. Dan Fodio was one of a class of urbanized ethnic Fulani living in the Hausa States in what is today northern Nigeria...
in
DegelDegel is a town in northern Nigeria. Once a part of the Hausa city-state of Gobir, Degel is particularly noted for being the home of Fulani Islamic reformer Usman dan Fodio from 1774 to 1804. Dan Fodio built a large following in the area until, fearing his growing power, Yunfa of Gobir ordered...
. Adama proved a bright scholar and a pious Muslim, and he earned the title
Modibo, "Lettered One". After several years away, he returned home to Guringa around 1804. There, the news was grim. Adama's father had died in 1803 fighting the Bata.
Jihad
Talk in Gurina also concerned events in Hausaland. Word had arrived that Usman dan Fodio had declared a militant
jihadJihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād is a noun meaning "struggle." Jihad appears frequently in the Qur'an and common usage as the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of Allah "...
on the
HausaThe Hausa are a Sahelian people chiefly located in the West African regions of northern Nigeria and southeastern Niger. There are also significant numbers found in regions of Sudan, Cameroon, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, and Chad and smaller communities scattered throughout West Africa and on the...
leaders. He had installed himself at Gudu and subsequently defeated non-Fulani leaders at Gobri and
KébbiKebbi State is a state in north-western Nigeria with its capital at Birnin Kebbi. The state was formed from part of Sokoto State in 1991. Kebbi State is bordered by Sokoto State, Niger State, Dosso Region in the Republic of Niger and the nation of Benin...
. Usman had now turned his attention to Bornu and to the vast southlands of Fumbina (modern-day Northern
CameroonThe Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the Bight of...
).
Adama's mandate
Still, the picture seemed unclear to leaders farther from the fighting. Was Usman a
MujaddidA Mujaddid , according to the popular Muslim tradition, refers to a person who appears at turn of every century of the Islamic calendar to revive Islam, remove from it any extraneous elements and restore it to its pristine purity...
(reformer), or was he the
MahdiAccording to the Shia and Sunni versions of the Islamic eschatology the Mahdi is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will stay on earth seven, nine, or nineteen years before the coming of the day, Yawm al-Qiyamah...
, a saviour figure who would create an ideal Muslim society? In 1805 or 1806, the Fulani leaders at Guringa assembled a delegation to visit Usman and find out. Adama's pious reputation and familiarity with Hausaland made him a natural fit for the mission.
The party met Usman in 1806, probably in
GwanduGwandu, also called Gando, is a town and emirate in Kebbi State, Nigeria. Originally founded in the sixteenth century by the Kebbawa, a Hausa-speaking people, Gwandu today acts as one of the four emirates composing Kebbi...
. There, they learned that his intention was to extend his jihad eastward, into Fumbina. The goal was ostensibly to convert various
KirdiThe Kirdi are an ethnic group of people living mostly in the Mandara Mountains in northwestern Cameroon and northeastern Nigeria. The Kirdi, who are also known as "mountain peoples", are made up of different people speaking the Chadic and Adamawa languages...
(
paganPaganism is a word with several different meanings.In its broadest definition, pagan denotes all non-Abrahamic religions, that is to say it denotes all religions other than Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.Other usages are:*Paganism may mean Polytheism: The group so defined includes most of the...
) peoples to Islam and to protect Muslims who already lived in the area. The jihadists were also supposed to educate the region's current Muslim population, many of whom
mergedSyncretism is the attempt to reconcile disparate or contrary beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. This may involve attempts to merge and analogise several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, and thus assert an...
Islam with
paganismPaganism is a word with several different meanings.In its broadest definition, pagan denotes all non-Abrahamic religions, that is to say it denotes all religions other than Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.Other usages are:*Paganism may mean Polytheism: The group so defined includes most of the...
.
Though not the oldest member, Adama was one of the more zealous about Usman's ideas. Usman thus presented him with a command that would change his life dramatically. The Shehu gave Adama his
blessingA blessing, is the infusion of something with holiness, divine will, or one's hope or approval.- Etymology and Germanic paganism :...
and presented him with a flag, the symbol of command in Usman's army. The Shehu then charged Adama to carry the jihad into Fumbina and from the
NileThe Nile is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world....
to the Bight of Biafra. Adama also received the power to distribute flags of command to others, thus establishing more centres of Fulani Islam and spreading the war to farther reaches.
Early campaigns
Adama immediately began recruiting Fulani and Hausa volunteers and
mercenariesA mercenary is a professional soldier hired by a foreign army, as opposed to a soldier enlisted in the armed forces of a sovereign state. He or she takes part in armed conflict on many different scales, and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain...
. These were mainly mounted
cavalryCavalry were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat. Cavalry were historically the second oldest and most mobile of the combat arms...
men fighting with
swordA sword is a long, edged piece of metal, used in many civilizations throughout the world, primarily as a cutting or thrusting weapon and occasionally for clubbing...
,
bowA bow is a weapon that projects arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow. Essentially, it is a form of spring. As the bow is drawn, energy is stored in the limbs of the bow and transformed into rapid motion when the string is released, with the string transferring this force to the arrow...
, and poisoned
arrowAn arrow is a pointed projectile that is shot with a bow. It predates recorded history and is common to most cultures.- Structure :A normal arrow consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front end, with fletchings and a nock at the other....
. Adama forbade them to pillage or to kill indiscriminately, but enemy nations were given two choices: convert to Islam or become a tributary state. Those
ethnic groupAn ethnic group is a group of humans whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage that is real or presumed.Ethnic identity is further marked by the researcher Seng Yang in the recognition from others of a group's distinctiveness and the recognition of common cultural,...
s that lacked a centralised government had but one: become
slavesSlavery is a form of forced labor in which people are considered to be the property of others. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to receive compensation...
to the Fulani and convert to their faith.
The non-Fulani Muslims of the Adamawa largely rejected Adama's jihad; they viewed it as little more than an excuse to spread Fulani hegemony. However, it was primarily the Fulani leaders (
ardo'en, singular:
ardo) of Fumbina with whom Adama was concerned. Some of them rejected his primacy for various reasons: He was from a fairly humble background, he owned little wealth, his
armyAn army An army An army (from Latin armata "armed (things)" via Old French armée, "armed" (feminine), in the broadest sense, is the land-based Military of a nation. It may also include other branches of the military such as the air force via means of aviation corps...
was still small, and he lacked
charismaThe word charisma refers to a trait found in persons whose personalities are characterized by a personal charm and magnetism , along with innate and powerfully sophisticated abilities of interpersonal communication and persuasion...
. The majority, however, welcomed Adama as a military commander or religious leader at the very least. Adama's son-in-law, Jauro Dembo, had already settled in Fumbina at Malabu and became one of his lieutenants.
The makeshift army made headquarters at Gurin, a fort at the junction of the Faro and
Benue RiverThe Benue River is the major tributary of the Niger River. The river is approximately 1,400 km long and is almost entirely navigable during the summer months...
s where Fulani warriors had regrouped after fighting the Bata in 1803. Adama then led his forces in a series of strikes on Bata settlements such as Pema,
TepaTepa is a town in Ghana. It is the capital of Ahafo Ano North District....
, and Turuwa. The victories elated Adama's men, who took numerous Bata slaves.
The early successes convinced more local Fulani leaders to come to Adama's side. Even those ardo'en who opposed his political rule recognised the jihad as an opportunity to expand their territories. Njobdi of the Wollarbe clan is one notable example, and his major rival, Hammam Sambo, perhaps the first ardo to have settled in Fumbina, proved the major holdout. Bitter relations between Njobdi and Hammam would prove a major obstacle in Adama's quest to maintain a cohesive empire.
In addition, common Fulani were inspired by Adama's exploits and formed into bands. Adama created a new position for their leaders: The
lamidoLamido is the Anglicisation of a term from the Fula language or Fulfulde, used to refer to a ruler. In the language it is properly laamiiɗo , derived from the verbal root "laam-" meaning "to rule or to lead", and hence may be translated more specifically as "leader"...
(plural:
lamibe), who was the leader of a particular territory, as opposed to an ardo, leader of a particular people. Both groups received flags of command and shared the same status in Adama's armies. Before his death, Adama would appoint over 40 non-ardo lamibe. They would prove his most loyal lieutenants.
Mandara campaign
Adama turned his attentions on the only major state in Fumbina that could present a threat to his fledgling emirate: Mandara. It was an attractive target. It lay between
BornuBornu may refer to:* Bornu Empire, a historical state of West Africa* Borno State, Nigeria...
to the north and Baghirmi in the Chad Basin, so its fall would facilitate the conquest of these areas. Its people were already Muslim, though they mixed the religion with pagan practices. Moreover, it had a large population from whom soldiers could be conscripted, and it was renown for its excellent horses. Mandara was well organised, however, and would not be an easy prize. The people who lived there, the Mandarawa, had a long-standing rivalry with the Fulani, who had fought them under the Bornu in previous years. This animosity only served to drive more Fulani to Adama's armies, though, as many veterans were eager for another crack at an old rival. Furthermore, Fulbe rulers Modibo Damraka and others were already embroiled in fighting against the Mandara in the Diamaré Plain. Sentiment for jihad was high.
Adama reached Guringa in 1809 with a large army in good
moraleMorale, also known as esprit de corps when discussing the morale of a group, is an intangible term used for the capacity of people to maintain belief in an institution or a goal, or even in oneself and others...
. He quickly conquered the Mandara settlement at
GuiderGuider is a city situated in Cameroon's North Province, close to the border with Chad. It has a population of 110,240. The city is home to Espérance FC of the Cameroon Premiere Division.- References :
*...
and headed north, taking several more villages along the way. Outside of the Mandara capital,
DuloDulo may refer to:#The Dulo clan or House of Dulo, from which descended the earliest Bulgarian Dynasty;#Dulo, Mandara, the capital of the historical African state of Mandara in what is now Cameroon....
, Adama demanded that the king, Bukar Djiama, swear his allegiance and convert to Islam untainted with paganism. Bukar agreed to acknowledged Adama's right to rule his own subjects, but he refused to yield his own sovereignty. Adama and his men took Dulo with little fighting.
Adama searched for someone to rule the settlement, but he found no one whom he felt adequate for the post. Meanwhile, his troops revelled in their plunder. No one expected the Mandara counterattack, which was launched from nearby
Mora-Places:*Mora, Cameroon*Mora Canton, Costa Rica*Mora, Cyprus*Mora, Ethiopia - a former kingdom or province in what is now Ethiopia*Mora, Maharashtra - a village near Mumbai, India.*Mora, Portugal - a municipality in the Évora district...
. Adama fled the town, and Dulo fell from his grasp forever.
Administration
Adama and his men retreated to
YolaYola may refer to:* Yola language, extinct language of County Wexford, Ireland* Yola , album by Eleanor McEvoy* Yola, Nigeria, capital of Adamawa State* Yowla, folk dance native to the United Arab Emirates* Yola, boat in the Grand Theft Auto series...
(in present-day Nigeria). The town would become his capital by 1841. From here, he and his lieutenants continued to expand the emirate, which he named
AdamawaAdamawa or the Adamawa Emirate was a traditional emirate located in Fumbina, what is now the Adamawa State, Nigeria and the three northern provinces of Cameroon . It was founded by Modibbo Adama, a commander of Sheikh Usman dan Fodio, the man who began the Fulani jihad in 1809. The capital was...
after himself. The subordinates had to send him tribute in the form of
cattleCattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
. Large settlements such as
MarouaMaroua is the capital of the Far North Province of Cameroon, on the Ferngo and Kaliao Rivers. The city has an estimated 299,600 inhabitants and is a centre of cotton industry. The city also has an airport located near the town of Salak, an agricultural school and ethnographic museum. To the North...
,
GarouaGaroua is the capital of the North Province of Cameroon, lying on the Benue River. The city has an estimated 490,000 inhabitants and is an important river port.- Overview :...
, and
NgaoundéréNgaoundéré or N'Gaoundéré is the capital of the Adamawa Province of Cameroon. It has a population of 189,800 . It lies at the northern end of the railway to Yaoundé and is also home to an airport. The current city was founded in approximately 1835 by the Fulani leader Ardo Njobdi, although the...
fell to Adama or his lieutenants. By 1825, the Fulani had penetrated the
Adamawa PlateauThe Adamawa Plateau is a plateau region in west-central Africa stretching from south-eastern Nigeria through north-central Cameroon to the Central African Republic. The plateau was named after Fulani Muslim leader Modibo Adama. The part of the plateau that lies in Nigeria is more popularly known...
. Nevertheless, Adama lived in relatively moderate surroundings and never acquired great wealth.
From Yola, Adama began the administrative tasks necessary for his nascent state. He did this with Usman's advice; he was to foster understanding between his people and their governors, facilitate communication between elders and their subordinates, and prevent the stratification of society based on class or wealth. The empire eventually took on three administrative tiers. At the centre was the
emir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the faithful"), Adama himself, ruling from Yola and answering only to Usman dan Fodio in
SokotoSokoto is a city located in the extreme northwest of Nigeria, near to the confluence of the Sokoto River and the Rima River. As of 2006 it has a population of 583,039...
. A contingent of councilors and administrators directly aided him, and a household staff of non-Fulbe and slaves doubled as his
bodyguardA bodyguard is a type of security guard or government agent who protects a person—usually a famous, wealthy, or politically important figure—from assault, kidnapping, assassination, stalking, loss of confidential information, or other threats.Most important public figures such as heads of state or...
. Below him were a number of district leaders, the lamibe, who ruled key settlements. Under them were a number of villages, each headed by a village
chiefA traditional tribal chief is the leader of a tribe, or the head of a tribal form of self-government.The notion of a "tribal chief" is rather vague and arbitrary; neither chief nor tribe is clearly defined, so in many cases other designations are used for the same institution, such as petty ruler...
.
Meanwhile, some of the older ardo'en grew powerful through their own conquests. They regarded the unconquered areas near their territories as their own private backyards and defended these zones from all comers. This sometimes surfaced in their relations with Adama, such as when Bouba Njida of
RaiRaï is a form of folk music that originated in Oran, Algeria from Bedouin shepherds, mixed with Spanish, French, African and Arabic musical forms, which dates back to the 1930s and has been primarily evolved by women in the culture...
refused to come to Adama's aid when the emir was fighting the
NamchiNamchi is the capital of the South Sikkim in the Indian state of Sikkim. The appellation Namchi means Sky High in Bhutia.- Geography :Namchi is located at . It has an average elevation of 1315 metres ....
at
PoliPoli can refer to:* Poli , persons surnamed Poli* FC Timişoara Romanian first league football club* FC Politehnica Iasi Romanian first league football club* A shortname of the Instituto Politécnico Superior...
. Instead, Bouba waited for Adama to retreat from the area to bring in his own forces and finish the enemy off. He then sent prisoners from the battle to Adama as a gift.
Legacy
Adama died in 1847 and was laid to rest at Yola (his tomb survives to this day). Adamawa covered 103,000 km² from Lake Chad to Banyo and was inhabited by 1,500,000 people. Further expansion to the south had proved difficult and undesirable since the presence of the
tsetse flyTsetse , sometimes spelled tzetze and also known as tik-tik flies, are large biting flies inhabiting much of mid-continental Africa between the Sahara and the Kalahari deserts. They live by feeding on the blood of vertebrate animals and are the primary biological vectors of trypanosomes, which...
and thick jungle made cattle rearing difficult there.
Adama's son Muhammadu Lawal succeeded him after a brief
regencyA regent, from the Latin regens "reigning", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Thus, the common use is for an acting deputy governor....
under Hamidu bi Adama. Eventually, three of Adama's other sons would at some point serve as Emir of Adamawa. Not until the
BritishGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
and
GermanGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
colonialColonialism is the building and maintaining of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. Sovereignty over the colony is claimed by the metropole...
periods would the emirate come to an end.
Despite their loss of independence, the Fulani were now the preeminent ethnic group of Northern Cameroon. They spread Islam throughout the region, establishing it as the dominant religion. Education also flourished, as new converts learned
ArabicArabic is a Central Semitic language, thus related to and classified alongside other Semitic languages such as Hebrew and the Neo-Aramaic languages. In terms of speakers, the Arabic macrolanguage is the largest member of the Semitic language family. It is spoken by more than 280 million people as...
writing and studied the
Qur'anThe Qur’an is the central religious text of Islam...
. Trade flourished, and communications with it. The conquests were also important ecologically. Lands that had once been used for cultivation now became part of Fulani pastureland. Herdsmen cut down trees to make way for cattle, and they burned grasses that their herds later trampled. Centuries of such behaviour have replaced the region's forest with
savannaA savanna, or savannah, is a grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close...
.
Ironically, the Adamawa was more sparsely populated after Adama's conquest. Rather than fight the Fulani invaders, many peoples fled, displacing others in turn. The Adamawa Plateau, once home to many of Cameroon's ethnic groups, soon became a pastureland, and the forest zone of Cameroon became more heavily populated.