Mischling ("
crossbreedA crossbreed or crossbred is an animal with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. Crossbreeding refers to the process of breeding such an animal, often with the intention of creating offspring that share the traits of both parent lineages, or producing an animal with...
" in
GermanGerman is a West Germanic language, thus related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. It is one of the world's major languages and the most widely spoken first language in the European Union. Around the world, German is spoken by approximately 105 million native speakers and also by...
) was the German term used during the Third Reich to denote persons deemed to have partial
JewThe Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
ish ancestry. The word has essentially the same origin as Mestee in
EnglishEnglish is a West Germanic language that developed in England during the Anglo-Saxon era. As a result of the military, economic, scientific, political, and cultural influence of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, and of the United States since the mid 20th century,...
,
mestizoMestizo is a Spanish and Portuguese term that was used in the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire to refer to Latin people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in the Americas....
in
SpanishSpanish or Castilian is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that originated in northern Spain and gradually spread in the Kingdom of Castile, evolving into the principal language of government and trade in the Iberian peninsula...
and
métisItalic textA Métis is a person born to parents who belong to different groups defined by visible physical differences, regarded as racial, or the descendant of such persons. The term is of French origin, and also is a cognate of mestizo in Spanish, mestiço in Portuguese, and mestee in English...
in
FrenchFrench is a Romance language globally spoken by about 65 million people as a first language , by 50 million as a second language, and by about another 200 million people as an acquired foreign language, with significant speakers in 57 countries. Most native speakers of the language live in France,...
. In German, the word has the general meaning of hybrid, mongrel, or
half-breedHalf-breed is a term used to describe anyone who is bi-racial. The term is widely used to describe people of mixed Native American and white European parentage...
. It is no longer used to designate persons of partial Jewish ancestry.
Nuremberg laws
As defined by the Nazi
Nuremberg lawsThe Nuremberg Laws of 1935 were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany which were introduced at the annual Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg. The laws classified people as German if all four of their grandparents were of "German or kindred blood", while people were classified as Jews if they descended from...
in 1935, a
JewThe Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
( in Nazi terminology) was a person - regardless of religious affiliation or self-identification - who had at least three Jewish grandparents, who had been enrolled with a Jewish congregation. A person with up to two Jewish grandparents was also legally "Jewish" (so-called
GeltungsjudeGeltungsjude was the nonofficial term for persons that were considered Jews by the first supplementary decree to the Nuremberg Laws from November 14, 1935...
, about in ) if they met any of these conditions:
- Were enrolled as member of a Jewish congregation when the Nuremberg Laws was issued, or joined later
- Were married to a Jew
- Were the issue from a marriage with a Jew, which was concluded after the ban on mixed marriages
- Were the issue of an extramarital relationship with a Jew, born out of wedlock after July 31, 1936.
People who did not belong to these categorical conditions but had two Jewish grandparents were Mischling of the first degree. Someone with only one Jewish grandparent was Mischling of the second degree. See
Mischling TestMischling Test refers to the legal test under Nazi Germany's Nuremberg Laws that was applied to determine whether a person was considered a "Jew" or a "Mischling".-Background:...
.
Jewish identity
Soon after passage of the Enabling Act of 1933, the Nazi government promulgated several anti-Jewish statutes, including the
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil ServiceThe Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , also known as Civil Service Law, Civil Service Restoration Act, and Law to Re-establish the Civil Service, was a law passed by the National Socialist regime on April 7 1933, two months after Adolf...
on 7 April 1933. Using this law, the regime aimed to dismiss all "non-Aryans" from all government positions in society, including public educators and those practicing medicine in state hospitals.
As a result, the term "non-Aryan" had to be defined in a way compatible with Nazi ideology. Four days after the passing of this act, under the so-called "First Racial Definition" supplementary decree of 11 April that was issued to clarify portions of the 7 April law, a "non-Aryan" (i.e. a Jew) was defined as one who had at least one Jewish parent or grandparent.
Following the mainstream Nazi
anti-SemitismAntisemitism is prejudice against or hostility towards Jews, often rooted in hatred of their ethnic background, culture, or religion....
, Jewry was considered as being a group of people bound by close, so-called genetic (blood) ties, to form an
ethnic unitAn ethnic group is a group of humans whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage that is real or presumed.Ethnic identity is further marked by the researcher Seng Yang in the recognition from others of a group's distinctiveness and the recognition of common cultural,...
, which one could not join or secede from. The influence of Jews had been declared to have detrimental impact on Germany, in order to rectify their discriminations and persecutions. To be spared from that, one had to prove one's affiliation with the group of the so-called Aryan race, as conceived by Nazism.
It is important to observe that the Nazis attempted to define Jewish identity genetically. Paradoxical was, that never genetic tests or outward allegedly racial features in one's physiognomy determined one's affiliation, although the Nazis palavered a lot about physiognomy, but as a practical type of "proof" the records on religious affiliations of one's grandparents decided (mostly christening records and membership registers of Jewish congregations).
However, while the grandparents were earlier still able to choose their religion, their grandchildren in the Nazi era were compulsorily classified as Jews, thus non-Aryans, if three or four grandparents were enrolled as members of a Jewish congregation, regardless if the persecuted themselves were Jews according to the Halachah (roughly meaning: Jewish by birth from a Jewess or by conversion), apostates, irreligionists or Christians. Thus Jews, who converted to Christendom could be regarded as especially deceitful and subversive. Gentiles who had converted to Judaism were perceived essentially as traitors to the "Aryan race" and were among the first to be persecuted and killed.
Standards of the SS
The SS used a more stringent standard: In order to join, a candidate had to prove (presumably, through
baptismIn Christianity, baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which one is admitted to membership of the Christian Church and, in the view of some, as a member of the particular Church in which the baptism is administered.The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the...
al records) that all direct ancestors born since 1750 were not
JewThe Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
ish, or they could apply for a
German Blood CertificateA German Blood Certificate was a document provided by Hitler to Mischlinge , declaring them deutschblütig . This practice was begun sometime after the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and allowed exemption from most of Germany's racial laws...
.
Mischlings often Protestant
In the 19th century many German Jews converted to
ChristianityChristianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented by the revelations in the New Testament....
, most of them becoming Protestants rather than Roman Catholics. Two thirds of the German population were Protestant. Protestants comprised a plurality in the nation as a whole until 1938, when the Anschluß annexing Austria rendered Germany a Roman Catholic majority, which subsequently increased with the incorporation of largely Roman Catholic
SudetenSudetenland is the German name used in English in the first half of the 20th century for the western regions of Czechoslovakia inhabited mostly by ethnic Germans, specifically the border areas of Bohemia, Moravia, and those parts of Silesia associated with Bohemia.The name is derived from the...
Germans.
About 80% of the Gentile Germans persecuted as Jews according to the
Nuremberg LawsThe Nuremberg Laws of 1935 were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany which were introduced at the annual Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg. The laws classified people as German if all four of their grandparents were of "German or kindred blood", while people were classified as Jews if they descended from...
were affiliated with one of the 28 Protestants church bodies. In 1933 approximately 77% of German Gentiles with Jewish ancestry were Protestant, the percentage dropped to 66% in the 1939 census, after the annexations of 1938. Converts to Christianity and their descendants often married Christians with no recent Jewish ancestry.
As a result - by the time the
NazisNazism, known officially in German as National Socialism , is the totalitarian ideology and practices of the Nazi Party or National Socialist German Workers’ Party under Adolf Hitler, and the policies adopted by the dictatorial government of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945.Nazism is often considered...
came to power - many Protestants and Roman Catholics in Germany had some traceable Jewish ancestry (usually traced back by the Nazi authorities for two generations), so that a majority of 1st- or 2nd-degree Mischlinge was Protestant, many Catholics. A considerable number of German Gentiles with Jewish ancestry were irreligionists.
Lutherans with Jewish ancestry were largely in northwestern and
Northern GermanyNorthern Germany is the geographic area in the north of Germany. The native German concept of northern Germany is called Norddeutschland.- Geography :...
,
EvangelicalThe Prussian Union was the merger of the Lutheran Church and the Reformed Church in Prussia, by a series of decrees - among them the Unionsurkunde - by King Frederick William III...
Protestants of Jewish descent in
Middle GermanyCentral Germany is not the exact center of Germany, but is mainly used for a region around Leipzig where the three federal states - Saxony, Thuringia and Saxony-Anhalt meet...
(Berlin and its southwestern environs) and the country's east. Catholics with Jewish ancestry lived mostly in
WesternThe geographic term Western Germany is used to describe a region in the west of Germany. The exact area defined by the term is not constant, but it usually includes, but does not have the borders of, North Rhine-Westphalia and Hesse...
and
Southern GermanyThe term Southern Germany is used to describe a region in the south of Germany. There is no specific boundary to the region, but it usually includes Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, and the southern part of Hesse. The Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate are also often included...
.
Reclassification procedure
Requests for reclassification (e.g., Jew as Mischling 1st degree, 1st degree as 2nd degree) or Aryanization (see
German Blood CertificateA German Blood Certificate was a document provided by Hitler to Mischlinge , declaring them deutschblütig . This practice was begun sometime after the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and allowed exemption from most of Germany's racial laws...
) were personally reviewed by
Adolf HitlerAdolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , popularly known as the Nazi Party...
himself. Apparently, he considered the issue important enough to him that he found time to review a few thousand such files. A reclassification approved by the Nazi party chancery and Hitler was considered an act of mercy (Gnadenakt). Further de facto reclassifications, however, missing any official document, were privilegations of certain artists and other experts by way of special protection by high Nazis.
A second way of reclassification was by way of declaratory action in court. Usually the discriminated person took the action, doubting her or his genetical descent from the Jewish-classified man until then regarded the biological (grand)father. Paternity suits aiming for reclassification appeared mostly with deceased, divorced or illegitimate (grand)fathers. They usually aimed at improving the discriminated and persecuted litigant's status from Jewish-classified to Mischling of first degree, or Mischling of first degree to second degree. The numbers of such suits soared when the Nazi government imposed new discriminations and persecutions (Nuremberg Laws 1935, November Pogrom 1938, and systematic deportations of Jewish Germans and Gentile Germans of Jewish descent to concentration camps, 1941).
The procedures, most humbling for the (grand)mothers, who had to declare in court they had committed adultery, more often ended with the wished success, than the other way around. Success resulted from several reasons. First, some lawyers specialised in such procedures and prepared them professionally, also refusing hopeless cases. There was no danger in the procedures, because in case of failure, this did not downgrade the classification of the litigant. Second, usually all the family members - including the sometimes still living doubted (grand)father - co-operated. Usually very likely alternative fathers were named, who either appeared themselves in court confirming their most likely fatherhood or who were already dead, but known as good friends, neighbours or subtenants of the (grand)mother. Fourth, the included obligatory, and most humbling body examinations of doubted father and child especially searched for allegedly racial features of outward appearance as conceived among anti-Semites to be typically Jewish, besides the blood test etc. already usual in earlier regular paternity suits. Especially when the doubted (grand)father was already dead, emigrated or deported (as after 1941), the examination concentrated on these fictitious abnormous outward features considered Jewish, to be found in the physiognomy of the descendant (child). Since the anti-Semitic clichés on Jewish outward appearance were so stereotyped, the usual litigant did not show features clearly indicating his Jewish descent in the eyes of the expert witnesses, so they often delivered in their medical evidences ambiguous results. Fifth the judges then tended to believe the (grand)mothers, alternative fathers, doubted fathers and other witnesses, who paid such a high price publicly humbling themselves, and not recorded for earlier perjuring, and declared the prior paternity annulled, ensuing the status improvement for the litigant.
The extent of assimilation of Jews and Gentiles of Jewish descent into their Gentile (and Christian) surroundings was a factor much more complicated than the Nazis anticipated
; widespread corruption and lack of any ethical moorings among many Nazi leaders frequently gave way to bribery, extortion, and other subterfuges over documentation of who was or was not a Jew.
Comparison with Jewish law
All streams in Judaism agree that there are two routes to Jewishness: ancestry and
conversionConversion to Judaism is a formal act undertaken by a non-Jewish person who wishes to be recognised as a full member of the Jewish community. A Jewish conversion is both a religious act and an expression of association with the Jewish people...
.
Regarding ancestry, Orthodox and Conservative Judaism consider the offspring of a Jewish mother
to be Jewish (matrilineal descent): the ancestry of the father is irrelevant. In the postwar era,
Reform JudaismReform Judaism refers to the spectrum of beliefs, practices and organizational infrastructure associated with Reform Judaism in North America and in the United Kingdom....
adopted the innovation of patrilineal, or bilineal descent: a person with a Jewish father and a non-Jewish mother may also be considered Jewish if (s)he identifies as such.
Karaite JudaismKaraite Judaism or Karaism is a Jewish movement characterized by the recognition of the Tanakh as its religious authority...
, including only the Tanakh in its canon, traces Jewishness exclusively through the father's line, (patrilineal descent). As was most likely the case in ancient Israel.
Regarding conversion, the various streams of Judaism apply different levels of stringency with respect to the prospective convert's level of observance and commitment, but all agree that the ancestry of the convert is irrelevant. People of all parentage and backgrounds have joined and continue to join the Jewish religion.
The modern State of
IsraelIsrael officially the State of Israel , is a developed state in Western Asia located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan in the east, and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its...
allows anyone who does not practise a religion other than Judaism to settle in Israel as a beneficiary of the
Law of ReturnThe Law of Return is Israeli legislation, enacted in 1950, that gives Jews, those of Jewish ancestry, and their spouses the right to migrate to and settle in Israel and gain citizenship.-Law:...
, provided that the person has one Jewish grandparent, a Jewish spouse, or that the person is a valid convert to Judaism.
Finally, a person of Jewish ancestry who converted to another religion is still considered Jewish in Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, whereas Reform Judaism and the State of Israel consider such people not to be Jewish.
Numbers of people considered Mischlinge
According to the 1939 Reich census, there were about 72,000 Mischlings of the 1st degree, some 39,000 of the 2nd degree, and tens of thousands more of higher degrees.
According to historian and Israeli Army and U.S. Marine veteran Bryan Mark Rigg, up to 160 thousand one-quarter, one-half, and even full Jewish men served in the German armed forces during
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, including several generals and at least one field marshal.
Organisations of Mischlinge
In July 1933 Christian Germans of Jewish descent had founded a self-help organisation, first named Reich's Federation of non-Aryan Christians , then renamed into Paul's Covenant
after the famous Jewish convert to Christianity (Sha'ul) Paul of TarsusPaul of Tarsus, also called Paul the Apostle, the Apostle Paul, or Saint Paul, Paul of Tarsus, also called Paul the Apostle, the Apostle Paul, or Saint Paul, Paul of Tarsus, also called Paul the Apostle, the Apostle Paul, or Saint Paul, ...
, presided by the known literary historian Heinrich Spiero. However, this association gathered only 4,500 members.
In early 1937 the Nazi government forbade that organisation, allowing a new successor organisation Association 1937
, which was prohibited to accept members - like Spiero - with three or four grandparents, who had been enrolled with a Jewish congregation. Thus that new association had lost its most prominent leaders and faded, having become an organisation solely for Mischlinge. The Association 1937 was compulsorily dissolved in 1939.
Pastor Heinrich Grüber and some enthusiasts started a new effort in 1936 to found an organisation to help Protestants of Jewish descent (Mischlinge and their (grand)parents, of whom at least one was classified as non-Aryan), completely neglected by the then official Protestant church bodies in Germany (see The Forsaken Children of the Church – Protestants of Jewish Descent).
After the war some Mischlinge founded the still-existing Notgemeinschaft der durch die Nürnberger Gesetze Betroffenen .
Prominent Mischlinge
Some examples of Mischlinge:
- Commander Paul Ascher
Paul Ascher was the artillery officer aboard the Panzerschiff Admiral Graf Spee during her cruise in the South Atlantic. He was later interned in Argentina in December 1939 after the scuttling of the ship, but escaped back to Germany.Paul Ascher was Fregattenkapitän aboard the Bismarck at the time...
, 1st degree Mischling receiving the German Blood CertificateA German Blood Certificate was a document provided by Hitler to Mischlinge , declaring them deutschblütig . This practice was begun sometime after the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and allowed exemption from most of Germany's racial laws...
.
- ice hockey player and participant of the 1936 Olympic Games
The 1936 Winter Olympics, officially known as the IV Olympic Winter Games, were a winter multi-sport event which was celebrated in 1936 in the market town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen in Bavaria, Germany. Germany also hosted the Summer Olympics the same year in Berlin...
Rudi BallRudi Victor Ball was a champion ice hockey player.He was born in Berlin and died in Johannesburg, South Africa....
, 1st degree Mischling
- Iron Cross-awarded soldier Horst Geitner, 1st degree Mischling
- future German writer and journalist Ralph Giordano
Ralph Giordano is a German writer and publicist.Giordano was born to a Sicilian father and a Jewish mother.Due to his Jewish heritage, he was soon persecuted by the Nazis during the Adolf Hitler regime. During World War II, his family survived the Holocaust by hiding at a friend's place...
, 1st-degree Mischling
- Wehrmacht soldier and Nazi model Werner Goldberg
Werner Goldberg was a half-Jewish German who served briefly as a soldier during World War II and whose image appeared in a German newspaper as "The Ideal German Soldier"....
, 1st-degree Mischling
- Colonel Walter H. Hollaender, 1st degree Mischling receiving the German Blood Certificate
A German Blood Certificate was a document provided by Hitler to Mischlinge , declaring them deutschblütig . This practice was begun sometime after the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and allowed exemption from most of Germany's racial laws...
.
- world champion Olympic fencer and participant of the 1936 Olympic Games Helene Mayer
Helene Mayer was a world champion Olympic fencer who competed for Nazi Germany in the 1936 Summer Olympics, despite having being forced to leave Germany and resettle in the United States because she was of Jewish family background...
, 1st degree Mischling
- future German actress Inge Meysel
Inge Meysel was a German actress. From the early 1960s until her death, Meysel was one of Germany's most popular actresses...
, 1st degree Mischling
- Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1933 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956.Schweizer Luftwaffe is also the name of the Swiss Air...
builder Erhard MilchErhard Milch was a German Field Marshal who oversaw the development of the Luftwaffe as part of the re-armament of Germany following World War I.-Early life:...
(Jewish father and Gentile mother, 1st degree Mischling) reclassified as Aryan by Adolf Hitler.
- Hamburg
Hamburg is the second-largest city in Germany and the sixth-largest city in the European Union...
's future first post-war First Burgomaster (i.e. simultaneous mayor and governor of the city state) Rudolf PetersenRudolf Hieronymus Petersen was a German businessman, politician and First Mayor of Hamburg ....
, 1st degree Mischling
- Kriegsmarine captain Bernhard Rogge
Bernhard Rogge was a Captain of the German Navy who, during World War II, commanded a merchant raider....
, 2nd degree Mischling
- then Wehrmacht soldier and future German federal chancellor Helmut Schmidt
Helmut Heinrich Waldemar Schmidt is a German Social Democratic politician who served as Chancellor of West Germany from 1974 to 1982. Prior to becoming chancellor, he had served as Minister of Defence and Minister of Finance. He had also served briefly as Minister of Economics and as acting...
, would-be 2nd degree Mischling
- Luftwaffe general Helmut Wilberg, 1st degree Mischling and declared Aryan in 1935 by Hitler.
- General and 1st-degree Mischling Arty Johannes Zukertort, who received the German Blood Certificate
A German Blood Certificate was a document provided by Hitler to Mischlinge , declaring them deutschblütig . This practice was begun sometime after the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and allowed exemption from most of Germany's racial laws...
; brother of General Karl Zukertort.
- General and 1st-degree Mischling Karl Zukertort, who received the German Blood Certificate
A German Blood Certificate was a document provided by Hitler to Mischlinge , declaring them deutschblütig . This practice was begun sometime after the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and allowed exemption from most of Germany's racial laws...
; brother of General Arty Johannes Zukertort.
Discrimination in education, vocation and marriage
Persons discriminated as Mischlinge were generally restricted whom to marry or to chose as partner. Mischlinge of first degree generally needed a permission to marry. Usually only other Mischlinge were allowed to become their spouses or Jewish-classified persons, however, this would make the Mischling recategorised as Geltungsjude. After 1942 marriage permissions were generally not granted any more - arging due to the war - until further notice. Mischlinge of second degree more easily received marriage permissions, usually for spouse classified as Aryan. Any marriage with other Mischlinge of which degree ever was unwelcome, arguing not to increase or maintain the percentage of Jewish ancestry the eventual children would have.
Mischlinge, those of first degree more than those of second degree, had restricted access to higher school and university education and were generally forbidden to attend higher schools and universities in 1942. As to vocation most jobs connected with one's work in the public, such as journalism, teaching, performing arts, government positions, politics etc. were blocked for Mischlinge, however, with exceptions for some prominent persons and those, who gained the needed German blood certificates.
Recruitment into the Organisation Todt
Beginning autumn of 1944, between 10,000 to 20,000 half-Jews (Mischlinge) and persons related to Jews by a so-called mixed marriage were recruited into special units or the
Organisation TodtThe Organisation Todt was a Third Reich civil and military engineering group in Germany eponymously named after its founder, Fritz Todt, an engineer and senior Nazi figure...
.
Mischlinge in German-occupied Europe
While the classifications of Mischling also applied in occupied Western Europe, well documented for the
NetherlandsThe Netherlands is a country in Northwestern Europe, constituting the major portion of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east...
, this was not the case in eastern Europe. Persons, who would have been classified as Mischlinge in the West, were simply classified as Jews in German-annexed Poland (Danzig-West Prussia, Warthegau, etc.), German-occupied Poland (
General GovernmentThe General Government refers to a part of the territories of Poland under German military occupation during World War II and that were a separate part of "Greater Germany"...
), German-occupied parts of the Soviet Union and the German-occupied Soviet-annexed Baltic states and eastern Poland.
See also
- Mischling Test
Mischling Test refers to the legal test under Nazi Germany's Nuremberg Laws that was applied to determine whether a person was considered a "Jew" or a "Mischling".-Background:...
- Who is a Jew?
"Who is a Jew?" is a basic question about Jewish identity. The question has gained particular prominence in connection with several high-profile legal cases in Israel since the founding of the Jewish state in 1948....
- Rhineland Bastard
Rhineland Bastard was a derogatory term used in Nazi Germany to describe Afro-German children of mixed German and African parentage who were fathered by French colonial troops occupying the Rhineland after World War I...
- Nazi eugenics
Nazi eugenics were Nazi Germany's racially-based social policies that placed the improvement of the race through eugenics at the center of their concerns and targeted those humans they identified as "life unworthy of life" , including but not limited to the criminal, degenerate, dissident,...
- Nazi Nuremberg Laws
- Rosenstrasse protest
The Rosenstrasse protest was a nonviolent protest in Rosenstrasse in Berlin in February and March 1943, carried out by the non-Jewish wives and relatives of Jewish men who had been arrested for deportation. The protests escalated until the men were released...
External links