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Mfecane
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Mfecane (Zulu name, also known as the Difaqane or Lifaqane in Sesotho), is an African expression which means something like "the crushing" or "scattering". It describes a period of widespread chaos and disturbance in southern Africa during the period between 1815 and about 1840.
The Mfecane began between the Tugela River and Pongola River, where Shaka created a militaristic Zulu kingdom. The Mfecane spread from there, leading to the formation and consolidation of other groups—such as the Matabele, the Mfengu and the Makololo—and the creation of states such as the modern Lesotho.
Causes of the Mfecane
There are varying theories on the ultimate causes of this catastrophic, bloody migration of many different tribes in the area.
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Encyclopedia
Mfecane (Zulu name, also known as the Difaqane or Lifaqane in Sesotho), is an African expression which means something like "the crushing" or "scattering". It describes a period of widespread chaos and disturbance in southern Africa during the period between 1815 and about 1840.
The Mfecane began between the Tugela River and Pongola River, where Shaka created a militaristic Zulu kingdom. The Mfecane spread from there, leading to the formation and consolidation of other groups—such as the Matabele, the Mfengu and the Makololo—and the creation of states such as the modern Lesotho.
Causes of the Mfecane
There are varying theories on the ultimate causes of this catastrophic, bloody migration of many different tribes in the area. Populations had increased greatly in Zululand. The introduction of maize (corn) from the Americas through the Portuguese in Mozambique was a factor. Maize produced more food than indigenous grasses on the same land, and thus could sustain the larger population, at the price of greater water usage. It also allowed Shaka to raise a standing army, growing crops not being a part of their duties. By the end of the 1700s much of the arable land was now occupied. Declining rainfall, and ten-year drought in the early 1800s meant that a battle for land and water resources began in earnest.
Other possible causes are the new tactics and weapons developed by the Zulus during this period. Instead of using throwing spears, the Zulus started to use broad bladed stabbing spears known as iklwa, which could be used very efficiently in close combat. The Zulus also instituted a form of conscription where every man had to serve the king as soldier in special age regiments, known in English as Impis. Not all peoples affected by the Mfecane adopted this practice, but many of the Nguni peoples did.
Rise of the Zulu
In about 1817, Dingiswayo of the Mthethwa group in the south near the Tugela River, entered into an alliance with the Tsonga controlling the trade routes to Delagoa Bay (now Maputo). This alliance encroached on the existing routes used by the Ndwandwe alliance, who occupied the region in the north, near the Pongola River. Battles between Dingiswayo and Zwide of the Ndwandwe probably mark the start of what became the Mfecane.
After the Mthethwa were beaten by Zwide, and Dingiswayo killed, many of the Mthethwa leaders formed a confederation with the Zulu clan, under the leadership of Shaka. The Zulus conquered and assimilated smaller clans in the area, and the Battle of Gqokli Hill marked the start of his conquest of the Ndwandwe.
Only the women and young men of a clan or village were welcomed by the Zulus. The elderly and men of fighting age were often either killed or escaped. Escapees quickly learned the tactics of the Zulus, and in turn descended upon more distant clans unfamiliar with the new order.
Consequences of the Mfecane for the Nguni tribes
In 1821 the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan defied Zulu king Shaka, and set up his own kingdom. He quickly made many enemies, not only with the Zulu king, but also with the Boers, Griqua and Tswana. Defeats in several clashes convinced Mzilikazi to move north towards Swaziland. Moving northwards and then inland westwards along the watershed between the Vaal and the Limpopo River Mzilikazi and his followers, the AmaNdebele, (called Matabele in English) established an Ndebele state at just north-west of the city of Pretoria. During this period the Matabele left a trail of destruction and devastation in their wake. During 1837-38 the Matabele were driven north of the Limpopo by the arrival of the Boer settlers, and they settled in an area now known as Matabeleland, in an area which is today in the south Zimbabwe. He set up his new capital in Bulawayo. The AmaNdebele forced the AmaShona of the region northwards and forced them to pay tribute, causing a tribal resentment still relevant today in modern Zimbabwe.
Shoshangane, one of Zwide's generals, fled to Mozambique with the remainder of the Ndwandwe after their defeat by Shaka at the Battle of Mhlatuze River in 1818. There they established the Gaza kingdom. They oppressed the Tsonga living there, some of whom fled over the Lebombo Mountains into the Northern Transvaal. In 1833 Shoshangane invaded various Portuguese settlements, and was initially successful. A combination of internal disputes and war against the Swazi lead to the downfall of the Gaza.
The Ngwane people lived in present-day Swaziland, settled in the southwest, and warred periodically with the Ndwandwe. Ngwane leader Sobhuza led his people to higher elevations around 1820 to escape Zulu attacks. In this period the Ngwane became known as the Swazi, and Sobhuza established the Swazi kingdom in what is now central Swaziland.
Zwangendaba of the Jere or Gumbi clan, a commander of the Ndwandwe army, fled north with Soshangane after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers were henceforth called Ngoni and continued north of the Zambezi river, where they formed a state in the region between Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika. Maseko led another part of the Ngoni people and founded another state to the east of Zwangendaba's kingdom.
To the east, escapees were assimilated into the Xhosa-speaking groups in present day Eastern Cape Province, becoming the Mfengu. They were subjected to successive waves of attack, and were pressed from the West by the British.
Consequences of the Mfecane for the Sotho-Tswana peoples
Moshoeshoe I gathered the mountain clans together in an alliance against the Zulus. Using a combination of fortifying the easily defended hills and cavalry raids, he fought against his enemies with some success, despite not adopting the Zulu tactics, like most of his neighbors. The territory of Moshoeshoe I became the kingdom of Lesotho.
Sebitwane gathered the Kololo tribe somewhere near modern Lesotho and wandered north across what is now Botswana, plundering and killing many of the Tswana people in the way. They finally settled north of the Zambezi river in Barotseland, where they made themselves rulers of the Lozi people.
The Tswana were pillaged by two large invasion forces set on the move by the Mfecane. The first of these were the Kololo, which reached what is now Botswana in 1826. The second was the passage of Mzilikazi across Tswana territory in 1837. Neither of these invasion forces established a state within Tswana territory, and continued north instead.
Controversies
In 1988, Rhodes University professor Julian Cobbing advanced a controversial new hypothesis on the rise of the Zulu state, which contended the Mfecane to be a self-serving constructed product of Apartheid politicians and historians. According to Cobbing, the Mfecane has been mischaracterized by Apartheid historians as a period of internally-induced black-on-black destruction. Instead, argued Cobbing, the roots of the conflicts can be found in the actions of European slave traders.
Cobbing's hypothesis (now known by many historians as the "Cobbing Controversy") remains controversial, although many agree that Cobbing's analysis offered several key breakthroughs and insights into the nature of early Zulu society. Some critics assert that revisionist theories like Cobbing's place too much weight on environmental factors and ignore the key roles played by dynamic human actors like the Zulu king Shaka. Historian Elizabeth Eldredge challenged Cobbing's thesis on the grounds that the European slave trade was not dominant enough at the time of the Mfecane to have had any meaningful influence, while acknowledging that placing the fault entirely on the Zulus was a result of heavily biased analysis.
A balanced view of the massive upheaval of the Mfecane would certainly point to Zulu expansion as a major factor. It seems clear that aggressive Zulu military activities sparked a tremendous ferment of change. Other factors must be added into the mix, including population pressures; corn crops from Europe; and white encroachment and expansion in the general area, including slaving and Portuguese activities in Mozambique.
Sources
One outstanding example of the traditional view of the Mfecane is J.D. Omer-Cooper's "The Zulu Aftermath".
A convincing refutation of the idea of Mfecane can be found in Norman Etherington's The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815-1854
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