Menon III of Pharsalus
Encyclopedia
Menon (in Greek
Mένων), son of Alexidemus, was a Thessalian
, probably from Pharsalus
and is famous for appearing in Plato
's dialogue the Meno
and for being among the generals killed by Artaxerxes
after the Battle of Cunaxa
as detailed in Xenophon
's Anabasis
.
the Persian. Xenophon gives a strongly hostile description of Menon as a disreputable, ambitious and dishonest youth, willing to commit any injustice for advancement, though Menon's actions in the Anabasis may not entirely merit such a negative portrait.
Menon, while still young is given command of 1000 hoplite
s and five hundred peltast
s from Thessaly as hired by Aristippus to assist Cyrus the Younger
in his attempt to seize the Persian throne from his brother Artaxerxes
. Artaxerxes was made king of Persia upon the death of Darius II
, but Cyrus believed that he had a more rightful claim to the throne and gathered an army to contend his kingship. Cyrus gathered together Persian supporters and Greek mercenaries
, including Xenophon himself. Cyrus at first deceived the Greeks about the purpose of his mission and led them some considerable way, to the Euphrates River
at Thapsacus
, before telling them his true intentions.
Xenophon goes into some detail about the march and mentions Menon on a few occasions. Menon escorted, with some of his troops, the Cilician queen Epyaxa back to Cilicia
. Menon lost some hundred troops on this mission, either because his troops were caught pillaging and killed by the Cilicians or because they got lost and wandered until they perished. Later, after Cyrus first told the Greeks that he was leading them into battle against Artaxerxes to seize the Persian throne, the Greeks were dismayed and demanded more money before they would continue. Menon won the admiration of Cyrus by persuading his troops to cross the Euphrates first (as a show of their willingness to follow Cyrus) before the other troops had decided. At another point, Menon's soldiers became enraged with Clearchus
, the Sparta
n general, unsuccessfully trying to stone him to death, an act which nearly led to Menon's and Clearchus' men openly fighting between them. This story, along with his loss of 100 men in Cilicia, suggests that Menon maintained poor discipline among his troops. Xenophon claims that Menon maintained discipline by participating in his troops' wrongdoings.
Cyrus eventually engaged with Artaxerxes' troops headed by Tissaphernes
at the Battle of Cunaxa
. The Greek contingent won easily, but Cyrus and his troops were repulsed and Cyrus himself was killed in battle. The Greek troops, now led by Clearchus, viewing themselves as the victors, declared their support for Ariaeus
, one of Cyrus' commanders and the most senior Persian on their side still living. Ariaeus, accompanied by Menon, his "guest-friend," met privately with Tissaphernes. Ctesias
tells us that Tissaphernes here began to plot with Menon to betray the Greeks. Xenophon writes that Clearchus believed that Menon had been pouring false slander about the Greeks into Tissaphernes' ear and was aware that Menon was plotting to seize control of the army from Clearchus with Tissaphernes's favor. Sherylee Bassett suggests that Tissaphernes may have been here deceiving Menon into thinking he would support his leadership aspirations, playing the two main leaders, Clearchus and Menon, off against each other. Ariaeus declined the offer of kingship and Tissaphernes began apparently friendly negotiations with Clearchus for a truce, finally inviting him for a cordial meeting with the other Greek generals and officers. According to Ctesias, some of the Greek soldiers were hesitant to attend the meeting, but Menon persuaded the soldiers, who thereby persuaded the reluctant Clearchus, to comply. Clearchus, with four other generals (Agis of Arcadia, Socrates of Achaea
, Proxenus of Boetia and Menon), twenty officers and some two hundred troops visited the tent of Tissaphernes but they were betrayed, Clearchus and the generals being captured and all of the officers and as many of the soldiers as could be caught being killed. The generals were taken to Artaxerxes and all were beheaded, except Menon.
Ctesias' account simply tells us, at this point, that Menon was spared. Diodorus
says Menon was spared since he alone was thought willing to betray the Greeks. According to Xenophon, Menon was kept alive and tortured for a year before finally being killed. Ctesias is generally an overall unreliable historian, but since he was at the time a physician to Artaxerxes and was witness to some of the events (for example, attending to Clearchus before he was beheaded), he may be considered more reliable than Xenophon, who, as he himself admits, is merely repeating a report that he heard. On the other hand, the two reports need not necessarily differ, if Ctesias only knew of Menon being spared and was not aware that he was subsequently tortured and ultimately killed.
as a guest of Anytus
accompanied by a considerable retinue of slaves. Menon's stay in Athens is short and Socrates mentions that Menon is not able to stay to attend the mysteries. The dialogue is probably not historical, but is meant to take place in 402 BC, shortly before Menon's Persian generalship or in 401 BC, while he is en route to Persia. Socrates says that Menon is a former student of Gorgias and Menon notes that he has made many speeches on virtue before large audiences, suggesting an interest in sophistry. Socrates' comments also suggest that he is associated with the Greek eristic
tradition of debate. Menon asks Socrates the question of whether virtue can be taught, but seems little interested in discovering the answer, but rather seeks a strong argument to use in debate and public speech. Xenophon had described Menon as being the complete opposite of virtuous and as believing that virtuous people were weak and ripe for being taken advantage of. Socrates tries to lead Menon into the question of what virtue is, but Menon resists, asking Socrates to answer his initial question of whether virtue is teachable. The dialogue ends with the conclusion that virtue is not teachable, though without a conclusion on what virtue is.
, Anabasis
, I.2, I.4-5, I.7-8, II.1-2 & II.4-6
Ctesias
, Photius' summary of Ctesias' Persica, §64 & §68-69
Plutarch
Artaxerxes (the one mention of Menon is a quote from Ctesias)
Diodorus Siculus
, Bibliotheca historica
XIV.19.8 & XIV.27.2
Plato
Meno
Bigwood, J. M. "The Ancient Accounts of the Battle of Cunaxa," The American Journal of Philology, 104:4 (Winter, 1983) pp 340–357
Brown, Truesdell S. "Menon of Thessaly" Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 35:4 (1986) pp 387–404
Hoerber, Robert G. "Plato's 'Meno,'" Phronesis, 5:2 (1960), pp 78–102
Nails, Debra, The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics, (Hackett 2002) pp 204–205
Historical Novels :
Valerio Massimo Manfredi "L' Armata Perduta", Arnoldo Mondadori Editore S.p.a. 2007 i.e. " The Lost Army"
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
Mένων), son of Alexidemus, was a Thessalian
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
, probably from Pharsalus
Farsala
Farsala , known in Antiquity as Φάρσαλος, Pharsalos or Pharsalus, is a city in southern Thessaly, in Greece. Farsala is located in the southern part of Larissa regional unit, and is one of its largest towns. The city is linked with GR-3, the old highway linking Larissa and Lamia and is also...
and is famous for appearing in Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
's dialogue the Meno
Meno
Meno is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. It attempts to determine the definition of virtue, or arete, meaning virtue in general, rather than particular virtues, such as justice or temperance. The first part of the work is written in the Socratic dialectical style and Meno is reduced to...
and for being among the generals killed by Artaxerxes
Artaxerxes II of Persia
Artaxerxes II Mnemon was king of Persia from 404 BC until his death. He was a son of Darius II of Persia and Parysatis.-Reign:...
after the Battle of Cunaxa
Battle of Cunaxa
The Battle of Cunaxa was fought in 401 BC between Cyrus the Younger and his elder brother Arsaces, who had inherited the Persian throne as Artaxerxes II in 404 BC. The great battle of the revolt of Cyrus took place 70 km north of Babylon, at Cunaxa , on the left bank of the Euphrates River...
as detailed in Xenophon
Xenophon
Xenophon , son of Gryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, also known as Xenophon of Athens, was a Greek historian, soldier, mercenary, philosopher and a contemporary and admirer of Socrates...
's Anabasis
Anabasis (Xenophon)
Anabasis is the most famous work, in seven books, of the Greek professional soldier and writer Xenophon. The journey it narrates is his best known accomplishment and "one of the great adventures in human history," as Will Durant expressed the common assessment.- The account :Xenophon accompanied...
.
Biography
Menon is reported, by both Xenophon and Plato, to have been attractive and in the bloom of youth and was quite young at his death. He had many lovers, including Aristippus of Larissa, Tharypas, and AriaeusAriaeus
Ariaeus was a Persian general who fought alongside Cyrus the Younger at the Battle of Cunaxa and later was involved in the assassination of Tissaphernes.-Life:...
the Persian. Xenophon gives a strongly hostile description of Menon as a disreputable, ambitious and dishonest youth, willing to commit any injustice for advancement, though Menon's actions in the Anabasis may not entirely merit such a negative portrait.
Menon, while still young is given command of 1000 hoplite
Hoplite
A hoplite was a citizen-soldier of the Ancient Greek city-states. Hoplites were primarily armed as spearmen and fought in a phalanx formation. The word "hoplite" derives from "hoplon" , the type of the shield used by the soldiers, although, as a word, "hopla" could also denote weapons held or even...
s and five hundred peltast
Peltast
A peltast was a type of light infantry in Ancient Thrace who often served as skirmishers.-Description:Peltasts carried a crescent-shaped wicker shield called pelte as their main protection, hence their name. According to Aristotle the pelte was rimless and covered in goat or sheep skin...
s from Thessaly as hired by Aristippus to assist Cyrus the Younger
Cyrus the Younger
Cyrus the Younger, son of Darius II of Persia and Parysatis, was a Persian prince and general. The time of his birth is unknown, but he died in 401 B.C. The history of Cyrus and of the retreat of the Greeks is told by Xenophon in his Anabasis. Another account, probably from Sophaenetus of...
in his attempt to seize the Persian throne from his brother Artaxerxes
Artaxerxes II of Persia
Artaxerxes II Mnemon was king of Persia from 404 BC until his death. He was a son of Darius II of Persia and Parysatis.-Reign:...
. Artaxerxes was made king of Persia upon the death of Darius II
Darius II of Persia
Darius II , was king of the Persian Empire from 423 BC to 405 BC.Artaxerxes I, who died on December 25, 424 BC, was followed by his son Xerxes II. After a month and a half Xerxes II was murdered by his brother Secydianus or Sogdianus...
, but Cyrus believed that he had a more rightful claim to the throne and gathered an army to contend his kingship. Cyrus gathered together Persian supporters and Greek mercenaries
Mercenary
A mercenary, is a person who takes part in an armed conflict based on the promise of material compensation rather than having a direct interest in, or a legal obligation to, the conflict itself. A non-conscript professional member of a regular army is not considered to be a mercenary although he...
, including Xenophon himself. Cyrus at first deceived the Greeks about the purpose of his mission and led them some considerable way, to the Euphrates River
Euphrates
The Euphrates is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia...
at Thapsacus
Thapsacus
Thapsacus , meaning ford or passage) was an ancient town along the western bank of the Euphrates river that would now lie in modern Syria or Turkey. Thapsacus was the Greek and Roman name for the town...
, before telling them his true intentions.
Xenophon goes into some detail about the march and mentions Menon on a few occasions. Menon escorted, with some of his troops, the Cilician queen Epyaxa back to Cilicia
Cilicia (satrapy)
Cilicia was a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, with its capitol at Tarsus. It was conquered sometime in the 540's by Cyrus the Great. Cilicia was a vassal, and although it had a vassal king had to pay a tribute of 360 horses and 500 talents of silver, according to Herodotus...
. Menon lost some hundred troops on this mission, either because his troops were caught pillaging and killed by the Cilicians or because they got lost and wandered until they perished. Later, after Cyrus first told the Greeks that he was leading them into battle against Artaxerxes to seize the Persian throne, the Greeks were dismayed and demanded more money before they would continue. Menon won the admiration of Cyrus by persuading his troops to cross the Euphrates first (as a show of their willingness to follow Cyrus) before the other troops had decided. At another point, Menon's soldiers became enraged with Clearchus
Clearchus of Sparta
Clearchus or Clearch , the son of Rhamphias, was a Spartan general and mercenary.Born about the middle of the 5th century BC, Clearchus was sent with a fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and became governor of Byzantium, of which town he was proxenus...
, the Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
n general, unsuccessfully trying to stone him to death, an act which nearly led to Menon's and Clearchus' men openly fighting between them. This story, along with his loss of 100 men in Cilicia, suggests that Menon maintained poor discipline among his troops. Xenophon claims that Menon maintained discipline by participating in his troops' wrongdoings.
Cyrus eventually engaged with Artaxerxes' troops headed by Tissaphernes
Tissaphernes
Tissaphernes was a Persian soldier and statesman, grandson of Hydarnes.In 413 BC he was satrap of Lydia and Caria, and commander in chief of the Persian army in Asia Minor...
at the Battle of Cunaxa
Battle of Cunaxa
The Battle of Cunaxa was fought in 401 BC between Cyrus the Younger and his elder brother Arsaces, who had inherited the Persian throne as Artaxerxes II in 404 BC. The great battle of the revolt of Cyrus took place 70 km north of Babylon, at Cunaxa , on the left bank of the Euphrates River...
. The Greek contingent won easily, but Cyrus and his troops were repulsed and Cyrus himself was killed in battle. The Greek troops, now led by Clearchus, viewing themselves as the victors, declared their support for Ariaeus
Ariaeus
Ariaeus was a Persian general who fought alongside Cyrus the Younger at the Battle of Cunaxa and later was involved in the assassination of Tissaphernes.-Life:...
, one of Cyrus' commanders and the most senior Persian on their side still living. Ariaeus, accompanied by Menon, his "guest-friend," met privately with Tissaphernes. Ctesias
Ctesias
Ctesias of Cnidus was a Greek physician and historian from Cnidus in Caria. Ctesias, who lived in the 5th century BC, was physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied in 401 BC on his expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger....
tells us that Tissaphernes here began to plot with Menon to betray the Greeks. Xenophon writes that Clearchus believed that Menon had been pouring false slander about the Greeks into Tissaphernes' ear and was aware that Menon was plotting to seize control of the army from Clearchus with Tissaphernes's favor. Sherylee Bassett suggests that Tissaphernes may have been here deceiving Menon into thinking he would support his leadership aspirations, playing the two main leaders, Clearchus and Menon, off against each other. Ariaeus declined the offer of kingship and Tissaphernes began apparently friendly negotiations with Clearchus for a truce, finally inviting him for a cordial meeting with the other Greek generals and officers. According to Ctesias, some of the Greek soldiers were hesitant to attend the meeting, but Menon persuaded the soldiers, who thereby persuaded the reluctant Clearchus, to comply. Clearchus, with four other generals (Agis of Arcadia, Socrates of Achaea
Socrates of Achaea
Socrates was a Greek mercenary general from Achaea who traveled to Persia to fight at the Battle of Cunaxa. Xenophon describes him as brave in war and a reliable friend. Socrates was summoned by Cyrus, with whom he was already connected, to bring as many troops as he could muster under the...
, Proxenus of Boetia and Menon), twenty officers and some two hundred troops visited the tent of Tissaphernes but they were betrayed, Clearchus and the generals being captured and all of the officers and as many of the soldiers as could be caught being killed. The generals were taken to Artaxerxes and all were beheaded, except Menon.
Ctesias' account simply tells us, at this point, that Menon was spared. Diodorus
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who flourished between 60 and 30 BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily . With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about Diodorus' life and doings beyond what is to be found in his own work, Bibliotheca...
says Menon was spared since he alone was thought willing to betray the Greeks. According to Xenophon, Menon was kept alive and tortured for a year before finally being killed. Ctesias is generally an overall unreliable historian, but since he was at the time a physician to Artaxerxes and was witness to some of the events (for example, attending to Clearchus before he was beheaded), he may be considered more reliable than Xenophon, who, as he himself admits, is merely repeating a report that he heard. On the other hand, the two reports need not necessarily differ, if Ctesias only knew of Menon being spared and was not aware that he was subsequently tortured and ultimately killed.
Menon in Plato
Menon appears in Plato's dialogue MenoMeno
Meno is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. It attempts to determine the definition of virtue, or arete, meaning virtue in general, rather than particular virtues, such as justice or temperance. The first part of the work is written in the Socratic dialectical style and Meno is reduced to...
as a guest of Anytus
Anytus
Anytus , son of Anthemion, was one of the prosecutors of Socrates. An unsubstantiated legend has it that he was banished from Athens after the public felt guilty about having Socrates executed. We know that he was one of the leading supporters of the democratic forces in Athens...
accompanied by a considerable retinue of slaves. Menon's stay in Athens is short and Socrates mentions that Menon is not able to stay to attend the mysteries. The dialogue is probably not historical, but is meant to take place in 402 BC, shortly before Menon's Persian generalship or in 401 BC, while he is en route to Persia. Socrates says that Menon is a former student of Gorgias and Menon notes that he has made many speeches on virtue before large audiences, suggesting an interest in sophistry. Socrates' comments also suggest that he is associated with the Greek eristic
Eristic
Eristic, from the ancient Greek word Eris meaning wrangle or strife, often refers to a type of argument where the participants fight and quarrel without any reasonable goal....
tradition of debate. Menon asks Socrates the question of whether virtue can be taught, but seems little interested in discovering the answer, but rather seeks a strong argument to use in debate and public speech. Xenophon had described Menon as being the complete opposite of virtuous and as believing that virtuous people were weak and ripe for being taken advantage of. Socrates tries to lead Menon into the question of what virtue is, but Menon resists, asking Socrates to answer his initial question of whether virtue is teachable. The dialogue ends with the conclusion that virtue is not teachable, though without a conclusion on what virtue is.
Ancient Sources
XenophonXenophon
Xenophon , son of Gryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, also known as Xenophon of Athens, was a Greek historian, soldier, mercenary, philosopher and a contemporary and admirer of Socrates...
, Anabasis
Anabasis (Xenophon)
Anabasis is the most famous work, in seven books, of the Greek professional soldier and writer Xenophon. The journey it narrates is his best known accomplishment and "one of the great adventures in human history," as Will Durant expressed the common assessment.- The account :Xenophon accompanied...
, I.2, I.4-5, I.7-8, II.1-2 & II.4-6
Ctesias
Ctesias
Ctesias of Cnidus was a Greek physician and historian from Cnidus in Caria. Ctesias, who lived in the 5th century BC, was physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied in 401 BC on his expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger....
, Photius' summary of Ctesias' Persica, §64 & §68-69
Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
Artaxerxes (the one mention of Menon is a quote from Ctesias)
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who flourished between 60 and 30 BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily . With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about Diodorus' life and doings beyond what is to be found in his own work, Bibliotheca...
, Bibliotheca historica
Bibliotheca historica
Bibliotheca historica , is a work of universal history by Diodorus Siculus. It consisted of forty books, which were divided into three sections. The first six books are geographical in theme, and describe the history and culture of Egypt , of Mesopotamia, India, Scythia, and Arabia , of North...
XIV.19.8 & XIV.27.2
Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
Meno
Meno
Meno is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. It attempts to determine the definition of virtue, or arete, meaning virtue in general, rather than particular virtues, such as justice or temperance. The first part of the work is written in the Socratic dialectical style and Meno is reduced to...
Other references
Bassett, Sherylee R. "Innocent Victims or Perjurers Betrayed? The Arrest of the Generals in Xenophon's 'Anabasis,'" The Classical Quarterly, New Series, 52: 2 (2002) pp 447–461Bigwood, J. M. "The Ancient Accounts of the Battle of Cunaxa," The American Journal of Philology, 104:4 (Winter, 1983) pp 340–357
Brown, Truesdell S. "Menon of Thessaly" Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, 35:4 (1986) pp 387–404
Hoerber, Robert G. "Plato's 'Meno,'" Phronesis, 5:2 (1960), pp 78–102
Nails, Debra, The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics, (Hackett 2002) pp 204–205
Historical Novels :
Valerio Massimo Manfredi "L' Armata Perduta", Arnoldo Mondadori Editore S.p.a. 2007 i.e. " The Lost Army"