Some placenames use other spellings, see also MenomoneeMenomonee can refer to:United States*Little Menomonee River in Ozaukee and Milwaukee counties, Wisconsin*Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin*Menomonee River in Washington, Waukesha, and Milwaukee counties in Wisconsin*Menomonee River Valley, Milwaukee...
and MenomonieTwo other spellings of the name appear elsewhere, see Menomonee and Menominee. For the town, see Menomonie .Menomonie is a city in and the county seat of Dunn County in the western part of the U.S. state of Wisconsin. The city's population was 16,264 as of the 2010 census...
.
The
Menominee (also spelled
Menomini; known as
Mamaceqtaw, "the people" in their
own languageThe Menominee language is an Algonquian language originally spoken by the Menominee people of northern Wisconsin and Michigan. It is still spoken on the Menominee Nation lands in Northern Wisconsin in the United States....
) are a
nationA nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
of
Native AmericansNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
living in
WisconsinWisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
. The Menominee, along with the
Ho-ChunkThe Ho-Chunk, also known as Winnebago, are a tribe of Native Americans, native to what is now Wisconsin and Illinois. There are two federally recognized Ho-Chunk tribes, the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin and Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska....
, are the only tribes that are indigenous to what is now Wisconsin. The name "Menominee" comes from the Ojibwe name
manoominii, meaning "
wild riceWild rice is four species of grasses forming the genus Zizania, and the grain which can be harvested from them. The grain was historically gathered and eaten in both North America and China...
people", as wild rice is one of their most important traditional
staplesA staple food is one that is eaten regularly and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a diet, and that supplies a high proportion of energy and nutrient needs. Most people live on a diet based on one or more staples...
.
Menominee Indian Reservation
The
Menominee Indian Reservation is an
Indian reservationAn American Indian reservation is an area of land managed by a Native American tribe under the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs...
located in northeastern
WisconsinWisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
. For the most part, it is conterminous with
Menominee County and the
town of MenomineeFor the city in western Wisconsin, see Menomonie.Menominee is a town in Menominee County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 4,562 at the 2000 census...
. However, there are many small pockets of territory within the county (and its geographically equivalent town) that are not considered to be part of the reservation. These pockets amount to a fairly small 1.14 percent of the county's area, so that, essentially, the reservation is only about 98.86 percent of the county's area. The largest of these pockets is in the western part of the community of
KeshenaKeshena is a census-designated place in and the county seat of Menominee County, Wisconsin, United States. Located on the Menominee Indian Reservation, the population was 1,262 at the 2010 census.-Geography:...
. Furthermore, the reservation has a plot of off-reservation trust land of 10.22 acres (41,358.9 m²) in
Winnebago CountyWinnebago County is a county in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. As of 2009, the population estimate was 163,370. Its county seat is Oshkosh. Winnebago County is included in the Oshkosh, Wisconsin-Neenah, Wisconsin, Metropolitan Statistical Area.-Geography:...
, to the south, west of the city of
OshkoshAs of the census of 2000, there were 62,916 people, 24,082 households, and 13,654 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,662.2 people per square mile . There were 25,420 housing units at an average density of 1,075.6 per square mile...
. The reservation's total land area is 353.894 sq mi (916.581 km²), while Menominee County's land area is 357.960 sq mi (927.111 km²). The non-reservation parts of the county are actually much more densely populated than the reservation, with 1,337 (29.3%) of the county's 4,562 total population, as opposed to the reservation's 3,225 (70.7%) population in the
2000 censusThe Twenty-second United States Census, known as Census 2000 and conducted by the Census Bureau, determined the resident population of the United States on April 1, 2000, to be 281,421,906, an increase of 13.2% over the 248,709,873 persons enumerated during the 1990 Census...
. (The plot of land in Winnebago County is unpopulated.) The most populous communities are
Legend LakeLegend Lake is a census-designated place in Menominee County, Wisconsin, Wisconsin, United States, on the Menominee Indian Reservation. The population was 1,525 at the 2010 census.-Geography:Legend Lake is located at ....
and
KeshenaKeshena is a census-designated place in and the county seat of Menominee County, Wisconsin, United States. Located on the Menominee Indian Reservation, the population was 1,262 at the 2010 census.-Geography:...
. They operate a number of gambling facilities and speak the
Menominee languageThe Menominee language is an Algonquian language originally spoken by the Menominee people of northern Wisconsin and Michigan. It is still spoken on the Menominee Nation lands in Northern Wisconsin in the United States....
.
History of the Reservation
The reservation was created in a treaty signed on May 12, 1854 in which the Menominee relinquished all claims to the lands held by them under previous treaties, and were assigned 432 square miles (1,118.9 km²) on the
Wolf RiverThe Wolf River, long, is one of the two National Scenic Rivers in Wisconsin, along with the St. Croix River. The scenic portion is long. It rises in the north woods of the state, with the northernmost fork stemming from Pine Lake in Forest County. The river then flows south through Langlade and...
. An additional treaty signed on February 11, 1856 carved out the southwestern corner of this area, creating a separate reservation for the Stockbridge and Munsee tribes. These are the same boundaries in existence today.
Communities
- Keshena
Keshena is a census-designated place in and the county seat of Menominee County, Wisconsin, United States. Located on the Menominee Indian Reservation, the population was 1,262 at the 2010 census.-Geography:...
(most, population 1,168)
- Legend Lake
Legend Lake is a census-designated place in Menominee County, Wisconsin, Wisconsin, United States, on the Menominee Indian Reservation. The population was 1,525 at the 2010 census.-Geography:Legend Lake is located at ....
(most, population 853)
- Middle Village
Middle Village is a census-designated place in Menominee and Shawano counties in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. It does not have any legal status as an incorporated municipality...
(part, population 106)
- Neopit
Neopit is a census-designated place in Menominee County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 690 at the 2010 census. Neopit is located along Wisconsin Highway 47 at its intersection with County Road M, approximately southeast of Zoar....
(most, population 637)
- Zoar
Zoar is a census-designated place and unincorporated community in Menominee County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 98 at the 2010 census...
(most, population 35)
History of the Menominee
The tribe formerly lived in what is now upper Michigan around
MackinacMichilimackinac is a name for the region around the Straits of Mackinac between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. Early settlers of North America applied the term to the entire region along Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. Today it is mostly within the boundaries of Michigan, in the United States...
.
John Reed SwantonJohn Reed Swanton was an American anthropologist and linguist who worked with Native American peoples throughout the United States. Swanton achieved recognition in the fields of ethnology and ethnohistory...
records in his
The Indian Tribes of North America under the "Wisconsin" section listing "Menominee" a band named "Misi'nimäk Kimiko Wini'niwuk, 'Michilimackinac People,' near the old fort at Mackinac, Mich." Father
Frederic BaragaFrederic Baraga, Servant of God was a Slovene American Roman Catholic missionary, bishop, and grammarian.-Early life:Frederic Baraga was born as Friderik Irenej Baraga in the manor house at Mala Vas no...
in his dictionary records "
Mishinimakinago; pl.
-g.—This name is given to some strange Indians, (according to the sayings of the Otchipwes,) who are rowing through the woods, and who are sometimes heard shooting, but never seen. And from this word, the name of the village of
Mackinac-Geography:* Mackinaw River, a tributary of the Illinois River* Straits of Mackinac, connecting the lakes and separates the Upper and Lower Peninsulas of Michigan* Mackinac Island, an island in the straits...
, or
Michillimackinac, is derived." Maehkaenah is the Menominee word for turtle. After helping the British and Canadians defeat the invading Americans at
Battle of Mackinac IslandThe Battle of Mackinac Island was a British victory in the War of 1812. Before the war, Fort Mackinac had been an important American trading post in the straits between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron...
, they sold their lands to the U.S. government through seven treaties from 1821 to 1848, they were moved to their present reservation. Although their customs are quite similar to those of the
ChippewaThe Ojibwe or Chippewa are among the largest groups of Native Americans–First Nations north of Mexico. They are divided between Canada and the United States. In Canada, they are the third-largest population among First Nations, surpassed only by Cree and Inuit...
(Ojibwa), their language has a closer affinity to those of the Fox and Kickapoo tribes.
An Eastern Woodlands tribe, the Menominee belong to the
Algonquian languageThe Algonquian languages also Algonkian) are a subfamily of Native American languages which includes most of the languages in the Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically similar Algonquin dialect of the Ojibwe language, which is a...
branch of North America. They were known as "folles avoines" (wild or foolish oats) by the early French. The Menominees formerly subsisted on a wide variety of plants and animals, with wild rice and
sturgeonSturgeon is the common name used for some 26 species of fish in the family Acipenseridae, including the genera Acipenser, Huso, Scaphirhynchus and Pseudoscaphirhynchus. The term includes over 20 species commonly referred to as sturgeon and several closely related species that have distinct common...
being two of the most important foods; feasts are still held annually at which each of these is served. The five principal Menominee clans are the Bear, the Eagle, the Wolf, the Crane, and the Moose.
The Menominee Tribe and the Termination Era
During the 1940s, the Menominee were identified for a U.S. program of termination, legally ending the Menominee's status as a sovereign nation. The Klamath in Oregon were the only other tribal group also identified for termination. The Menominee were chosen for termination because it was believed by the
Bureau of Indian AffairsThe Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the US Department of the Interior. It is responsible for the administration and management of of land held in trust by the United States for Native Americans in the United States, Native American...
they were sufficiently economically self-reliant on their timber industry to be free of federal oversight.
In 1954,
CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
passed a law which phased out the Menominee reservation, effectively terminating its tribal status on April 30, 1961. Commonly held tribal property was transferred to a corporation, Menominee Enterprises, Inc. (MEI). The area of the former reservation became a new county.
Even by eventual federal measures, the plan was a dismal failure, resulting in diminished standards of living for the members of the tribe, and forcing the closure of the hospital and some schools.
Menominee County, Wisconsin, was the poorest and least populated Wisconsin county during this time, and termination further devastated the region. Tribal industries alone could not sustain the community, and the tax base could not fund basic services for the Menominee. MEI funds, which totaled $10 million in 1954, dwindled to $300,000 in 1964. A 1967 plan by MEI to raise money by selling off former tribal lands to non-Native Americans resulted in a fierce backlash.
Community members began an organizing campaign to restore political sovereignty to the Menominee. Former tribe members, among them
Ada DeerAda Deer is a Native American advocate and scholar who served as head of the United States' Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1993 to 1997.-Background:A member of the Menominee tribe, Deer was born in Keshena, Wisconsin...
, an organizer who would later go on to a career as an advocate for Native Americans at the federal level, formed a group called the Determination of Rights and Unity for Menominee Stockholders (DRUMS) in 1970. The organization was successful at blocking the sale of tribal land to non-Indian developers. They successfully fought for control of the MEI board of directors and lobbied Congress to restore their status as a federally recognized sovereign tribe.
The lobbying was successful, resulting in a bill signed by
Richard NixonRichard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. The only president to resign the office, Nixon had previously served as a US representative and senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under...
on December 22, 1973, which recognized the tribe again and started them on the path towards reforming a reservation. The reservation was reformed in 1975, a tribal constitution was signed in 1976, and the new tribal government took over in 1979.
Culture
Menominee
mythologyThe term mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. As examples, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece...
is rich with ethical meaning and interrelated in complex ways with the sacred literature of Native American people.
The Menominee believed that the
earthEarth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets...
was separating the upper and lower worlds. The upper world represented good and the lower world represented evil. These two worlds were divided into several layers, the furthest being the most powerful. The
sunThe Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields...
was at the highest level in the upper world, followed by the
ThunderbirdThe Thunderbird is a legendary creature in certain North American indigenous peoples' history and culture. It is considered a "supernatural" bird of power and strength...
and the Morning Star; the
Golden EagleThe Golden Eagle is one of the best known birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. Once widespread across the Holarctic, it has disappeared from many of the more heavily populated areas...
s (symbols of war); and other birds led by the
Bald EagleThe Bald Eagle is a bird of prey found in North America. It is the national bird and symbol of the United States of America. This sea eagle has two known sub-species and forms a species pair with the White-tailed Eagle...
. The first level below the earth in the lower world was occupied by the Horned Serpent. The next level was the home of the White Deer, which contributed to the origins of the Medicine Dance. The next level was the Underwater Panther. The lowest level was ruled by the Great White Bear.
The Menominee used
dreamDreams are successions of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. The content and purpose of dreams are not definitively understood, though they have been a topic of scientific speculation, philosophical intrigue and religious...
ing as a way of connecting with a guardian spirit in order to gain power. During
pubertyPuberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of reproduction, as initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads; the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a boy...
, both boys and girls would
fastFasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. An absolute fast is normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a defined period, usually a single day , or several days. Other fasts may be only partially restrictive,...
for days, living in a small isolated
wigwamA wigwam or wickiup is a domed room dwelling used by certain Native American tribes. The term wickiup is generally used to label these kinds of dwellings in American Southwest and West. Wigwam is usually applied to these structures in the American Northeast...
. Medicine men would then interpret their dreams of spirits in animal form and would inform the youngster what responsibilities he or she owed to the guardian spirit.
Current tribal activities
The Menominee have a
community collegeA community college is a type of educational institution. The term can have different meanings in different countries.-Australia:Community colleges carry on the tradition of adult education, which was established in Australia around mid 19th century when evening classes were held to help adults...
called the College of Menominee Nation, which contains a Sustainable Development Institute.
The tribe also owns and operates a
Las VegasThe Las Vegas Strip is an approximately stretch of Las Vegas Boulevard in Clark County, Nevada; adjacent to, but outside the city limits of Las Vegas proper. The Strip lies within the unincorporated townships of Paradise and Winchester...
style
casinoIn modern English, a casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions...
, bingo and
hotelA hotel is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis. The provision of basic accommodation, in times past, consisting only of a room with a bed, a cupboard, a small table and a washstand has largely been replaced by rooms with modern facilities, including en-suite bathrooms...
that has been in operation since June 5, 1987. Approximately 79 percent of the Menominee Casino-Bingo-Hotel's 500 employees are of Native American descent or are spouses of Native Americans.
The nation also has a notable forestry resource and ably manages a timber program. In an 1870 assessment of their lands, which totaled roughly 235000 acres (951 km²), they counted 1.3 billion standing
board feetThe board-foot is a specialized unit of measure for the volume of lumber in the United States and Canada. It is the volume of a one-foot length of a board one foot wide and one inch thick....
of timber. Today that has risen to 1.7 billion board feet, and in the intervening years over 2.25 billion board feet have been harvested.
Notable Menominees
- Chrystos
Chrystos is a Menominee rights activist and poet. Prior to being published, she worked as a home caretaker, and an activist for Turtle Mountain Band of Chipewa, Norma Jean Croy , and Leonard Peltier....
, a Two-SpiritTwo-Spirit People , is an English term that emerged in 1990 out of the third annual inter-tribal Native American/First Nations gay/lesbian American conference in Winnipeg. It describes Indigenous North Americans who fulfill one of many mixed gender roles found traditionally among many Native...
identified poet
- Ada Deer
Ada Deer is a Native American advocate and scholar who served as head of the United States' Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1993 to 1997.-Background:A member of the Menominee tribe, Deer was born in Keshena, Wisconsin...
—Assistant Secretary for Indian AffairsThe Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the US Department of the Interior. It is responsible for the administration and management of of land held in trust by the United States for Native Americans in the United States, Native American...
, 1993–1997
- Billie Frechette, lover of 1930s serial bank robber John Dillinger
John Herbert Dillinger, Jr. was an American bank robber in Depression-era United States. He was charged with, but never convicted of, the murder of an East Chicago, Indiana police officer during a shoot-out. This was his only alleged homicide. His gang robbed two dozen banks and four police stations...
- Mitchell Oshkenaniew
- Chief Oshkosh
Chief Oshkosh was the chief of the Menominee Indian tribe from 1827 until his death. He played a key role in treaty negotiations as the Menominee tribe tried to protect their lands in Wisconsin from the resettling New York Indians and the American pioneers...
(1795–1858)
- Ingrid Washinawatok
Ingrid Washinawatok El-Issa was an internationally-known member of the Menominee Nation of upper Wisconsin. She was murdered by FARC guerrillas in Colombia...
—Co-Founder, Fund for the Four Directions, indigenous activist, killed by the FARCThe Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia – People's Army is a Marxist–Leninist revolutionary guerrilla organization based in Colombia which is involved in the ongoing Colombian armed conflict, currently involved in drug dealing and crimes against the civilians..FARC-EP is a peasant army which...
in Colombia, 1999
- Sheila Tousey
Sheila May Tousey is an Native American actress.-Biography:Born in Keshena, Wisconsin, Tousey is a Menominee and Stockbridge-Munsee Indian, raised on both Menominee and Stockbridge-Munsee Reservations.-Filmography:-External links:*...
--actress, ThunderheartThunderheart is a 1992 American contemporary western mystery film directed by Michael Apted from an original screenplay by John Fusco. The film is a loosely based fictional portrayal of events relating to the Wounded Knee incident in 1973...
External links