Maxine Singer
Encyclopedia
Maxine Frank Singer is an American molecular biologist and science administrator. She is known for her contributions to solving the genetic code
, her role in the ethical and regulatory debates on recombinant DNA
techniques (including the organization of the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
), and her leadership of Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Singer was born in New York City
. After attending public high school in Brooklyn
, she majored in chemistry (and minored in biology) at Swarthmore College
. She went on to earn a Ph.D.
in 1957 at Yale University
, researching protein chemistry under Joseph Fruton. Fruton encouraged her to specialize in nucleic acid
s, and in 1956 she joined the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Leon Heppel at the National Institutes of Health
. Through her work there on RNA synthesis, Singer produced synthetic nucleotides that were used in Marshall Nirenberg's experiments establishing the triplet nature of the genetic code.
In the wake of the 1973 report of the first use of recombinant DNA
techniques to introduce genes from one species into another, Singer was among the first to call attention to the possible risks of genetic engineering. She was a chairperson of the 1973 Gordon Conference
on Nucleic Acids, where the possible public health risks of the technique were discussed, and she helped to organize the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
that resulted in guidelines for dealing with the largely unknown risks of the technique.
Singer was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
in 1978. In 1988 She became president of Carnegie Institution of Washington, a position she held until 2002. In 2007 Singer was awarded the Public Welfare Medal
from the National Academy of Sciences
.
Genetic code
The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material is translated into proteins by living cells....
, her role in the ethical and regulatory debates on recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA molecules are DNA sequences that result from the use of laboratory methods to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in biological organisms...
techniques (including the organization of the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA was an influential conference organized by Paul Berg discussing the potential biohazards and regulation of biotechnology held in February 1975 at a conference center Asilomar State Beach...
), and her leadership of Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Singer was born in New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
. After attending public high school in Brooklyn
Brooklyn
Brooklyn is the most populous of New York City's five boroughs, with nearly 2.6 million residents, and the second-largest in area. Since 1896, Brooklyn has had the same boundaries as Kings County, which is now the most populous county in New York State and the second-most densely populated...
, she majored in chemistry (and minored in biology) at Swarthmore College
Swarthmore College
Swarthmore College is a private, independent, liberal arts college in the United States with an enrollment of about 1,500 students. The college is located in the borough of Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, 11 miles southwest of Philadelphia....
. She went on to earn a Ph.D.
Ph.D.
A Ph.D. is a Doctor of Philosophy, an academic degree.Ph.D. may also refer to:* Ph.D. , a 1980s British group*Piled Higher and Deeper, a web comic strip*PhD: Phantasy Degree, a Korean comic series* PhD Docbook renderer, an XML renderer...
in 1957 at Yale University
Yale University
Yale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States...
, researching protein chemistry under Joseph Fruton. Fruton encouraged her to specialize in nucleic acid
Nucleic acid
Nucleic acids are biological molecules essential for life, and include DNA and RNA . Together with proteins, nucleic acids make up the most important macromolecules; each is found in abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information...
s, and in 1956 she joined the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Leon Heppel at the National Institutes of Health
National Institutes of Health
The National Institutes of Health are an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and are the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and health-related research. Its science and engineering counterpart is the National Science Foundation...
. Through her work there on RNA synthesis, Singer produced synthetic nucleotides that were used in Marshall Nirenberg's experiments establishing the triplet nature of the genetic code.
In the wake of the 1973 report of the first use of recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA molecules are DNA sequences that result from the use of laboratory methods to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in biological organisms...
techniques to introduce genes from one species into another, Singer was among the first to call attention to the possible risks of genetic engineering. She was a chairperson of the 1973 Gordon Conference
Gordon Research Conferences
Gordon Research Conferences are international scientific conferences organized by a non-profit organization of the same name. The conference topics cover frontier research in the biological, chemical, and physical sciences, and their related technologies. The conferences have been held since...
on Nucleic Acids, where the possible public health risks of the technique were discussed, and she helped to organize the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA was an influential conference organized by Paul Berg discussing the potential biohazards and regulation of biotechnology held in February 1975 at a conference center Asilomar State Beach...
that resulted in guidelines for dealing with the largely unknown risks of the technique.
Singer was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences is an independent policy research center that conducts multidisciplinary studies of complex and emerging problems. The Academy’s elected members are leaders in the academic disciplines, the arts, business, and public affairs.James Bowdoin, John Adams, and...
in 1978. In 1988 She became president of Carnegie Institution of Washington, a position she held until 2002. In 2007 Singer was awarded the Public Welfare Medal
Public Welfare Medal
The Public Welfare Medal is awarded by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences "in recognition of distinguished contributions in the application of science to the public welfare." It is the most prestigious honor conferred by the Academy...
from the National Academy of Sciences
United States National Academy of Sciences
The National Academy of Sciences is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine." As a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and...
.
External links
- Maxine Singer papers (1950-2004) - Library of Congress finding aid
- The Maxine Singer Papers - Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine
- "Why Can't School Science Be More Like Science?" by Maxine Singer - Society for Developmental Biology