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Mari language
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The Mari language (Mari: , marii jylme, ), spoken by more than 600,000 people, belongs to the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic language family. It is spoken primarily in the Mari Republic (Mari: , Marii El, i.e. Mari Land) of the Russian Federation as well as in the area along the Vyatka river basin and eastwards to the Urals. Mari speakers, known as the Mari are found also in the Tatarstan, Udmurtia, and Perm regions.
Mari today has a unified standard form with two variants (Hill vs. Meadow or Western and Eastern, with the Eastern variant prevailing in everyday usage), using a modified version of the Cyrillic alphabet, and is the titular and official language of its republic, alongside Russian.
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Encyclopedia
The Mari language (Mari: , marii jylme, ), spoken by more than 600,000 people, belongs to the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic language family. It is spoken primarily in the Mari Republic (Mari: , Marii El, i.e. Mari Land) of the Russian Federation as well as in the area along the Vyatka river basin and eastwards to the Urals. Mari speakers, known as the Mari are found also in the Tatarstan, Udmurtia, and Perm regions.
Mari today has a unified standard form with two variants (Hill vs. Meadow or Western and Eastern, with the Eastern variant prevailing in everyday usage), using a modified version of the Cyrillic alphabet, and is the titular and official language of its republic, alongside Russian. The use of two "variants," as opposed to two "languages," has been hotly debated: on the one hand, Maris recognize the unity of the ethnic group; on the other hand, the structural differences between Hill and Meadow Mari are at least as substantial, if not more so, than those found in the successor languages to what used to be called Serbo-Croatian.
Ethnonym and glottonym
The Mari language and people were known as "Cheremis" (in mediæval texts the variant forms Cheremis', Sarmys, Tsarmys are also found; ; , Çarmâs) before the Russian Revolution. The term Mari comes from the Maris' self-designation , which is thought to have been borrowed from the Indo-Aryan term *mar- (< PIE *mer-) 'man, mortal'.
Sociolinguistic situation
Most Maris live in rural areas with slightly more than a quarter living in cities. In the republican capital, Yoshkar-Ola, the percentage of Maris is just over 23%. At the end of the 1980s (per the 1989 census) Maris numbered 670,868, of whom 80% (542,160) claimed Mari as their first language and 18.8% did not speak Mari. In the Mari Republic, 11.6% claimed Mari was not their first language. In a survey by the Mari Research Institute more than 3/4 of Maris survey considered Mari language to be the most crucial marker of ethnic identity, followed by traditional culture (61%) and common historical past (22%), religion (16%), character and mentality (15%) and appearance (11%) (see Glukhov and Glukhov for details). A gradual downward trend towards assimilation to Russian has been noted for the Communist period: the 1926 census indicated more than 99% of Maris considered Mari their first language, declining to less than 81% in 1989. Some qualitative evidence of a reversal in recent years has been noted.
There was no state support for Mari language in Imperial Russia, and with the exception of some enthusiasts and numerous ecclesiastical texts by the Russian Orthodox Church, there was almost no education in Mari language. After the October Revolution, there was a period of support of all lesser national cultures in the Soviet Union, but eventually Russification returned. While the development of Mari literary language continued, still, only elementary-school education was available in Mari in the Soviet period, with this policy ending in village schools in the 1970–1980s. The period of glasnost and perestroika in the 1990s opened opportunities for a revival of efforts expand the use of Mari in education and the public sphere. In the 1990s, the Mari language, alongside Russian, was proclaimed in the republican constitution to be an official language of Mari El. By the beginning of the 21st century, Mari language and literature was taught in 226 schools. At the History and Philology Department of the Mari State University and the Krupskaya Teachers' Training Institute (Yoshkar-Ola), more than half of the subjects are taught in Mari.
Dialects
Traditionally there are two macrodialects of Mari: Hill Mari, spoken on the upper bank of the Volga River, near Kozmodemyansk, and Meadow Mari on the lowland bank in and around the republican capital, Yoshkar-Ola. Today linguists distinguish four dialects: Hill (right-bank of the Volga and part of the left bank), Meadow (at the confluence of the Kokshaga and Volga rivers), Eastern (east of the Vyatka), and North-Western. Some Mari also speak Tatar language.
Orthography
Draft version of the Latin alphabet from 1930
Meadow Mari Alphabet
Hill Mari Alphabet
Grammar
Like other Uralic languages, Mari is an agglutinating language. It lacks grammatical gender, and does not use articles.
Phonology
Vowels
| Height | Front | back | | unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded |
|---|
| Close | | | 1 | | Mid | | | | | Open | 1 | - | | - | |
- Only in Hill Mari
Word prosody and vowel harmony
Stress is not phonemic in Mari, but a dynamic stress system is exhibited phonetically, the stressed syllable being higher in pitch and amplitude and greater in length than an unstressed syllable. Generally, there is one prominent syllable per word and prominence may be found in any syllable of the word. Post- and prefixes behave as clitics, i.e., they do not have their own stress. For example, (house) ??? (out of) ? ; ??´?? (song) ???? (with) ? .
As in other Uralic languages, Mari displays vowel harmony, including harmony of both round/unround and front/back. If the stressed vowel in the word is rounded, then the suffix will contain a rounded vowel: (herd) ? (in the herd); if the stressed vowel is unrounded, then the suffix will contain an unrounded vowel: ??´? (hand) ? ??´????? (in the hand). If the stressed vowel is back, then the suffix will end in a back vowel: ???´? (whirlpool) ? ???´????? 'in the whirlpool' (??????, ???????, ??????? 1990: 9).
Consonants
Consonants are shown in Cyrillic, Latin, and the IPA:
- Only in Hill Mari and in loan words.
- Palatalisation is marked in different ways. A ? following a palatalised consonant is written as ?, an ? following a palatalised consonant is written as ?. If the vowel following a palatalised consonant is an ? or an ?, palatalisation is not marked at all. In other cases, the soft sign ? is used to mark palatalisation.
- In Russian loan words, ?/?/? are pronounced as b/d/g. Some speakers pronounce them as such in general, due to Russian influence on the language.
- The modified Cyrillic letter for the velar nasal combines the Cyrillic letter ? ? with and ? ?, where the rightmost post of ? is conflated with the vertical post of ?: . While Hill Mari has the sound too, the character is only used in Meadow Mari.
Declension
Case
Meadow Mari has 9 productive cases, of which 3 are locative cases. The usage of these is restricted to inanimate objects.
Many cases, aside from their basic function, are used in other situations, such as in expressions of time.
The nominative case is used for subjects, predicatives and for other grammatical functions.
The genitive case is used for possessive constructions.
The dative is the indirect object's case.
The accusative is the direct object's case.
The comitative is used as when a subject or an object can be split up into parts, or in adverbials expressing the involvement of an object in an action.
The comparative is used to express the likeness to something.
The inessive used to state where something is.
The illative is used to state where something is going.
The lative is used to express, into what something is going.
| Case Name | Suffix | Question Words | Example (animate) | Example (inanimate) |
|---|
| Nominative | - | ?ö, ?? (who, what) | ???? (a child - subject) | ?? (a village - subject) | | Genitive | -(?)? | ?ö?, ??? (whose, what's) | ????? (of a child) | ???? (of a village) | | Dative | -??? | ?ö???, ????? (to whom, to what/why) | ??????? (to a child) | ????? (to a village) | | Accusative | -(?)? | ?ö?, ??? (whom, what) | ????? (a child - object) | ???? (a village - object) | | Comitative | -?? | ?ö??, ???? (with whom, with what) | ?????? (with a child) | ???? (with a village) | | Comparative | -?? | ?ö??, ???? (like who, like what) | ?????? (like a child) | ???? (like a village) | | Inessive | -(?)???/(?)???/(?)??? | ????? (where) | - | ?????? (in a village) | | Illative | -(?)???/(?)???/(?)???, -(?)?1 | ?????/??? (where to) | - | ??????/???? (to a village) | | Lative | -?/??/?? | ????? (where to) | - | ???? (into a village) |
- The illative has a short form, equivalent to the long form in meaning.
If a locative statement was to be made about an animate object, postpositions would be used.
Additionally, terms denoting family members have Vocative forms. These are, however, not created with a specific paradigm, and only exist in a few pre-defined cases.
Hill Mari has these cases, plus the Caritative case, which is used to form adverbials stating without the involvement or influence of what an action happens.
Number
Mari, though an agglutinative language, does not have a separate morpheme to signify plurality. There are three particles, which are attached to the end of words with a hyphen, used to signify plural.
- -???? (-vlak) - Standard plural form.
- -????? (-šam?c) - Alternative standard plural, used in many dialects. There is no difference in meaning between these two
- -??? (m?t) - Sociative plural. Used to signify a group of people - the members of a family, a person and his family and friends.
Possessive Suffixes
Every grammatical person in Mari has its own possessive suffix.
| Person | Suffix | Example |
|---|
| - | - | ????? (face) | | First Person Singular | -??/?? | ?????? (my face) | | Second Person Singular | -??/?? | ?????? (your face) | | Third Person Singular | -??/??/??/??/??/?? | ??????? (his/her/its face) | | First Person Plural | -?? | ??????? (our face) | | Second Person Plural | -?? | ??????? (your face) | | Third Person Singular | -??/??? | ??????? (their face) |
Additional Suffixes
Additional particles, falling into none of the categories above, can be added to the very end of a word, giving it some additional meaning. For example, the suffix -?? (-at), means 'also' or 'too'.
Arrangement of Suffixes
The arrangement of suffixes varies from case to case. While the case suffixes are after the possessive suffixes in the genitive and the accusative, the opposite is the case for the locative cases. In the dative, both arrangements are possible.
| Case | Singular | Example | Plural |
|---|
| Nominative | P | ?????? - 'my house (subject)' | ??????-???? - 'my houses (subject)' | | Genitive | P --> C | ???????? - 'of my house' | ??????-?????? - 'of my houses' | | Accusative | P --> C | ???????? - 'my house (object)' | ??????-?????? - 'my houses (object)' | | Comitative | P --> C | ???????? - 'with my house' | ??????-?????? - 'with my houses' | | Dative | P --> C, C --> P | ?????????, ????????? 'to my houses' | ??????-??????? 'to my houses' | | Comparative | P --> C, C --> P | ????????, ??????? - 'like my house' | ??????-?????? - 'like my house' | | Inessive | C --> P | ????????? - 'in my house' | ????-????????? - 'in my houses' | | Illative | C --> P | ????????? - 'into my house' | ????-????????? - 'into my houses' | | Lative | C --> P | ???????? - 'into my houses' | ????-???????? - 'into my houses' | |
There are many other arrangements in the plural - the position of the plural particle is flexible. The arrangement here is one commonly used possibility.
Comparison
Comparison happens with adjectives and adverbs. The comparative is formed with the suffix -??? (-rak). The superlative is formed by adding the word ?? (en) in front.
| Comparative | Superlative |
|---|
| ???? - 'big' | ??????? - 'bigger' | ?? ???? - 'biggest' |
Conjugation
Morphologically, conjugation follows three tenses and three moods in Meadow Mari.
Conjugation Classes
In Meadow Mari, words can conjugate according to two conjugation classes. These differ from each other in all forms but the infinitive. Unfortunately, the infinitive is the form denoted in dictionaries and word lists. It is, thus, necessary to either mark verb infinitives by their conjugation class in word lists, or to include a form in which the conjugation class is visible - usually, the first person singular present, which ends in -?? (or -??) for verbs in the first declination, and in -?? (or -??) for second declination verbs.
Tense
The three tenses of Mari verbs are:
The present tense is used for present and future actions, for states of being and for habitual actions, among others.
The first preterite is used to express observed, recent actions.
The second preterite is used for actions which lie more distantly in the past.
Additional tenses can be formed through periphrasis.
- First Periphrastic Imperfect
- Second Periphrastic Imperfect
- First Periphrastic Perfect
- Second Periphrastic Perfect
Mood
The moods are:
The indicative is used to express facts and positive beliefs. All intentions that a particular language does not categorize as another mood are classified as indicative. It can be formed in all persons, in all times.
The imperative expresses direct commands, requests, and prohibitions. It only exists in the present tense, and exists in all persons but the first person singular.
The desiderative is used to express desires. It can be formed for all persons, in the present tense and in the two periphrastic imperfect tenses.
Negation
Negation in Mari uses a 'negative verb', much like Finnish does. The negative verb is more versatile than the negative verb in Finnish (see Finnish grammar), existing in more grammatical tenses and moods. It has its own form in the present indicative, imperative and desiderative, and in the first preterite indicative. Other negations are periphrastic.
The negation verb in its corresponding form is put in front of a the stem of the negated verb, which is equal to the second person singular of a verb, much as it is in Finnish and Estonian.
| Person | Indicative Present | Imperative Present | Desiderative Present | Indicative First Preterite |
|---|
| First Person Singular | ?? (om) | - | ???? (?nem) | ??? (š?m) | | Second Person Singular | ?? (ot) | ?? (it) | ???? (?net) | ??? (s?c) | | Third Person Singular | ???? (ogeš) / ?? (ok) | ???? (?nže) | ????(?) (?než(e)) | ?? (?š) | | First Person Plural | ????? (og?na) / ??? (ona) | - | ????? (?nena) | ???? (?šna) | | Second Person Plural | ????? (og?da) / ??? (oda) | ??? (ida) | ????? (?neda) | ???? (?šda) | | Third Person Plural | ???? (og?t) | ????? (?n?št) | ????? (?nešt) | ??? (?št) |
The verb ???? (ulaš) - to be - has its own negated forms.
| Person | |
|---|
| First Person Singular - 'I am not' | ???? (om?l) | | Second Person Singular - 'You are not' | ???? (ot?l) | | Third Person Singular - 'He/she/it is not' | ???? (og?l) | | First Person Plural - 'We are not' | ?????? (og?nal) / ???? (onal) | | Second Person Plural - 'You are not' | ?????? (og?dal) / ???? (odal) | | Third Person Plural - 'They are not' | ?????? (og?t?l) |
Word Forms
In order to illustrate the conjugation in the respective moods and times, one verb of the first declination (?????? - to go) and one verb of the second declination (?????? - to forget) will be used.
Conjugation of the present indicative positive | Person | 1st Dec. pos. | 2nd Dec. pos. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | ?????? (I go) | ?????? (I forget) | | 2nd Singular | ?????? (You go) | ?????? (You forget) | | 3rd Singular | ?????? (He/she/it goes) | ????? (He/she/it forgets) | | 1st Plural | ??????? (We go) | ??????? (We forget) | | 2nd Plural | ??????? (You go) | ??????? (You forget) | | 3rd Plural | ?????? (They go) | ?????? (They forget) |
Conjugation of the present indicative negative | Person | 1st Dec. neg. | 2nd Dec. neg. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | ?? ???2 (I don't go) | ?? ?????1 (I don't forget) | | 2nd Singular | ?? ???2 (You don't go) | ?? ?????1 (You don't forget) | | 3rd Singular | ???? ???2 (He/she/it doesn't go) | ???? ?????1 (He/she/it doesn't forget) | | 1st Plural | ????? ???2 (We don't go) | ????? ?????1 (We don't forget) | | 2nd Plural | ????? ???2 (You don't go) | ????? ?????1 (You don't forget) | | 3rd Plural | ???? ???2 (They don't go) | ???? ?????1 (They don't forget) |
- Bold letters are subject to Vowel harmony - they can be ?/?/?, depending on the preceding full vowel's properties.
- First conjugation verb forms using the imperative second person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes the imperative is subject to - see imperative second person singular.
Conjugation of the 1st preterite indicative positive | Person | 1st Dec. pos. | 2nd Dec. pos. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | ??????3 (I went) | ???????? (I forgot) | | 2nd Singular | ??????3 (You went) | ???????? (You forgot) | | 3rd Singular | ?????1, 3 (He/she/it went) | ?????? (He/she/it forgot) | | 1st Plural | ?????2 (We went) | ???????? (We forget) | | 2nd Plural | ?????2 (You went) | ???????? (You forgot) | | 3rd Plural | ??????3 (They went) | ??????? (They forgot) |
- Bold letters are subject to Vowel harmony -- they can be ?/?/?, depending on the preceding full vowel's properties.
- First conjugation verb forms using the imperative second person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes the imperative is subject to - see imperative second person singular.
- If the consonant prior to the ending can be palatalized – if it is a ?(l) or an ?(n) – it is palatalized in this position. Note that palatalization is not marked if the vowel following a consonant is an ?.
????? --> ??????, ??????, ?????, ?????, ????? ,?????? (to hear)
Conjugation of the 1st preterite indicative negative | Person | 1st Dec. neg. | 2nd Dec. neg. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | ??? ???2 (I didn't go) | ??? ?????1 (I didn't forget) | | 2nd Singular | ??? ???2 (You didn't go) | ??? ?????1 (You didn't forget) | | 3rd Singular | ?? ???2 (He/she/it didn't go) | ?? ?????1 (He/she/it didn't forget) | | 1st Plural | ???? ???2 (We didn't go) | ???? ?????1 (We don't forget) | | 2nd Plural | ???? ???2 (You didn't go) | ???? ?????1 (You didn't forget) | | 3rd Plural | ??? ???2 (They didn't go) | ??? ?????1 (They didn't forget) |
- Bold letters are subject to Vowel harmony - they can be ?/?/?, depending on the preceding full vowel's properties.
- First conjugation verb forms using the imperative second person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes the imperative is subject to - see imperative second person singular.
Conjugation of the 2st preterite indicative positive | Person | 1st Dec. pos. | 2nd Dec. pos. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | ???????? (I went) | ???????? (I forgot) | | 2nd Singular | ???????? (You went) | ???????? (You forgot) | | 3rd Singular | ?????? (He/she/it went) | ?????? (He/she/it forgot) | | 1st Plural | ???????? (We went) | ???????? (We forget) | | 2nd Plural | ???????? (You went) | ???????? (You forgot) | | 3rd Plural | ???????? (They went) | ???????? (They forgot) |
Conjugation of the 2st preterite indicative negative | Person | 1st Dec. neg. | 2nd Dec. neg. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | ?????? ???? (I didn't go) | ?????? ???? (I didn't forget) | | 2nd Singular | ?????? ???? (You didn't go) | ?????? ???? (You didn't forget) | | 3rd Singular | ?????? ????(He/she/it didn't go) | ?????? ????(He/she/it didn't forget) | | 1st Plural | ?????? ?????? (We didn't go) | ?????? ?????? (We don't forget) | | 2nd Plural | ?????? ?????? (You didn't go) | ?????? ?????? (You didn't forget) | | 3rd Plural | ?????? ?????? (They didn't go) | ?????? ?????? (They didn't forget) |
Conjugation of the imperative positive | Person | 1st Dec. pos. | 2nd Dec. pos. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | - | - | | 2nd Singular | ???3 (Go!) | ?????1 (Forget!) | | 3rd Singular | ?????2 (He/She/It should go) | ???????1 (He/She/It should forget) | | 1st Plural | ??????? (Let's go) | ??????? (Let's forget) | | 2nd Plural | ?????2 (Go!) | ??????? (Forget!) | | 3rd Plural | ??????? (They should go) | ??????? (They should forget) |
- Bold letters are subject to Vowel harmony - they can be ?/?/?, depending on the preceding full vowel's properties.
- First conjugation verb forms using the imperative second person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes the imperative is subject to.
- In the first conjugation, the imperative second person singular is formed by removing the "-??" ending from the infinitive. Four consonant combinations are not allowed at the end of an imperative, and are thus simplified -- one consonant is lost.
"??" --> "?", "??" --> "?", "??" --> "?", "??" --> "?"
Conjugation of the imperative negative | Person | 1st Dec. neg. | 2nd Dec. neg. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | - | - | | 2nd Singular | ?? ???2 (Don't go!) | ?? ?????1 (Don't forget!) | | 3rd Singular | ???? ???2 (He/She/It shouldn't go) | ???? ?????1 (He/She/It shouldn't forget) | | 1st Plural | ????? ???2 (Let's not go) | ????? ?????1 (Let's not forget) | | 2nd Plural | ??? ???2 (Don't go!) | ??? ?????1 (Don't forget!) | | 3rd Plural | ????? ???2 (They shouldn't go) | ????? ?????1 (They shouldn't forget) |
- Bold letters are subject to Vowel harmony - they can be ?/?/?, depending on the preceding full vowel's properties.
- First conjugation verb forms using the imperative second person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes the imperative is subject to - see imperative second person singular.
Conjugation of the present desiderative positive | Person | 1st Dec. pos. | 2nd Dec. pos. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | ??????2 (I want to go) | ???????? (I want to forget) | | 2nd Singular | ??????2 (You want to go) | ???????? (You want to forget) | | 3rd Singular | ???????2 (He/she/it wants to go) | ????????? (He/she/it wants to forget) | | 1st Plural | ???????2 (We want to go) | ????????? (We want to forget) | | 2nd Plural | ???????2 (You want to go) | ????????? (You want to forget) | | 3rd Plural | ???????2 (They want to go) | ????????? (They want to forget) |
- First conjugation verb forms using the imperative second person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes the imperative is subject to - see imperative second person singular.
Conjugation of the present desiderative negative | Person | 1st Dec. neg. | 2nd Dec. neg. |
|---|
| 1st Singular | ???? ???2 (I don't want to go) | ???? ?????1 (I don't want to forget) | | 2nd Singular | ???? ???2 (You don't want to go) | ???? ?????1 (You don't want to forget) | | 3rd Singular | ????? ???2 (He/she/it doesn't want to go) | ????? ?????1 (He/she/it doesn't want to forget) | | 1st Plural | ????? ???2 (We don't want to go) | ????? ?????1 (We don't want to forget) | | 2nd Plural | ????? ???2 (You don't want to go) | ????? ?????1 (You don't want to forget) | | 3rd Plural | ????? ???2 (They don't want to go) | ????? ?????1 (They don't want to forget) |
- Bold letters are subject to Vowel harmony - they can be ?/?/?, depending on the preceding full vowel's properties.
- First conjugation verb forms using the imperative second person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes the imperative is subject to - see imperative second person singular.
Conjugation of ???? - to be - in the indicative mood | Person | Present (positive) | Present (negative) | 1st preterite (positive) | 1st preterite (negative) | 2nd preterite (positive) | 2nd preterite (negative) |
|---|
| 1st Sing. | ???? (I am) | ???? (I am not) | ????? (I was) | ??? ??? (I was not) | ?????? (I was) | ????? ???? (I was not) | | 2nd Sing. | ???? (You are) | ???? (You are not) | ????? (You were) | ??? ??? (You were not) | ?????? (You were) | ????? ???? (You were not) | | 3rd Sing. | ??? (He/she/it is) | ???? (He/she/it is not) | ??? (He/she/it was) | ?? ??? (He/she/it was not) | ?????(??) (He/she/it was) | ????? ???? (He/she/it was not) | | 1st Pl. | ????? (We are) | ?????? (We are not) | ????? (We were) | ???? ??? (We were not) | ?????? (We were) | ????? ?????? (We were not) | | 2nd Pl. | ????? (You are) | ?????? (You are not) | ????? (You were) | ???? ??? (You were not) | ?????? (You were) | ????? ?????? (You were not) | | 3rd Pl. | ???? (They are) | ?????? (They are not) | ????? (They were) | ??? ??? (They were not) | ?????? (They were) | ????? ?????? (Theywere not) |
Infinitive Forms
Verbs have two infinitive forms - the standard infinitive, and the necessive infinitive, used when a person must do something. The person needing to do something is put in the dative in such a situation.
Participles
There are four participles in Meadow Mari:
- Active Participle
- Passive Participle
- Negative Participle
- Future Participle
Gerunds
There are five gerunds in Meadow Mari:
- Affirmative Instructive Gerund
- Negative Instructive Gerund
- Gerund for Prior Actions I
- Gerund for Prior Actions II
- Gerund for Simultaneous Actions
Syntax
Word order in Mari is Subject Object Verb.
Some common words and phrases
Note that the accent mark, which denotes the place of stress, is not used in actual Mari orthography.
- ??´?? ??´??/Póro kéce - Good day
- ??´?? ??´?/Kúgu táu - Thank you (very much)
- ??, ???, ???, ???, ???/ik, kok, kum, n?l, vic - one, two, three, four, five
- ???, ???, ?????´?, ????´?, ??/kud, š?m, kandáš, indéš, lu - six, seven, eight, nine, ten
- ???/mut - word
Bibliography
- Alhoniemi, A., Marin kielioppi, Helsinki, 1985 (Hill and Meadow);
- Alhoniemi, A., Marin kielen lukemisto sanastoineen, Helsinki, 1986 (Hill and Meadow);
- Castrén M. A., Elementa grammaticae tscheremissicae, Kuopio, 1845 (Hill);
- Wiedemann F., Versuch einer Grammatik der tscheremissischen Sprache, Saint Petersburg, 1847 (Hill);
- Budenz J., Erdéi és hegyi cseremisz szótár, Pest, 1866 (Mari [Hill and Meadow], Hungarian, Latin);
- ???????? ?. ?., ??????????-??????? ???????, Kazan', 1894 (Hill and Meadow);
- Szilasi M., Cseremisz szótár, Budapest, 1901 (Mari [Hill and Meadow], Hungarian, German);
- Ramstedt G. J., Bergtscheremissische Sprachstudien, Helsinki, 1902 (Hill);
- Beke ?., Cseremisz nyelvtan, Budapest, 1911 (Hill and Meadow);
- ???????? ?. ?., ??????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ????, Kazan', 1918 (Hill and Meadow);
- ????? ?. ?., ????-??????? ??????? ??????? ???????, Kazan', 1920 (Hill);
- ???????? ?. ?., ????????? ? ???????? ?????????? ?????, Krasnokokshajsk, 1925 (Meadow);
- ???????? ?. ?., ??????? ?????????? ????? ??????-?????????? ???????, Yoshkar-Ola, 1929 (Meadow);
- ???????? ?. ?., ????? ?????, ?oscow, 1929 (Hill and Meadow);
- Räsänen M., Die tschuwassischen Lehnwörter im Tscheremissischen, Helsinki, 1920;
- Lewy E., Tscheremissische Grammatik, Leipzig, 1922 (Meadow);
- Wichmann Y., Tscheremissische Texte mit Wörterverzeichnis und grammatikalischem Abriss, Helsingfors, 1923 (Hill and Meadow);
- Räsänen, Die tatarischen Lehnwörter im Tscheremissischen, Helsinki, 1923.
- Sebeok, T. A. and A. Raun. (eds.), The First Cheremis Grammar (1775): A Facsimile Edition, Chicago, 1956.
- Ingemann, F. J. and T. A. Sebeok, An Eastern Cheremis Manual: Phonology, Grammar, Texts and Glossary (= American Council of Learned Societies, Research and Studies in Uralic and Altaic languages, project nos. 6 and 31), Bloomington, 1961 (Meadow);
- ??????, ?. ?., ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????, vol. I, II, Yoshkar-Ola, 1964, 1966;
- ??????, ?. ?., ??????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????, Yoshkar-Ola, 1975;
- ??????, ?. ?., ????? ?????????????, Yoshkar-Ola, 1981;
- ??????, ?. ?., ?. ?. ???????, and ?. ?. ???????. ????????? ???? ??? ????, ?. 1. ??????-???: ????????? ??????? ????????????, 1990;
- ?????????, ?. ?. "????????? ????", ????? ????: ????????? ?????. Moscow, 1993: 148-164.
- ?????????, ?. ?. "?????????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????????? ?????", ????? ????: ????????? ?????. Moscow, 1993: 164-173.
- Glukhov, N. and V. Glukhov, "Mari Men and Women as Bearers of the Mari Language and Identity," Wiener elektronische Beiträge des Instituts für Finno-Ugristik, 2003. Available, along with other papers on Finno-Ugric languages and cultures, at http://webfu.univie.ac.at/archiv.php
- Klima, L. "The linguistic affinity of the Volgaic Finno-Ugrians and their ethnogenesis," 2004: http://mek.oszk.hu/01700/01794/
- ??????, ?. ?., "????????????? ? ???????? ?????????? ?????", ???????. ????????-??????????????? ??????/????? ?????. ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????-????, Yoshkar-Ola, 2005: 43-46.
External links
Mari language and useful dictionaries:
- *
- (Web portal in Russian and Mari) The ???????? 'interview' link leads to wmv-format files with interviews in Mari language
- (in Mari, Estonian, English and Russian - covers news, politics, society, education, science, art and culture)
- by the Finno-Ugric Information Center in Syktyvkar, Komi Republic (interface in Russian and English, texts in Mari, Komi, Udmurt, Erzya and Moksha languages)
- (in Russian)
- (in Russian)
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