Mahan confederacy
Encyclopedia
Mahan was a loose confederacy of statelets that existed from around the 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE in the southern Korean peninsula
in the Chungcheong
and Jeolla
provinces. Arising out of the confluence of Gojoseon
migration and the Jin state federation, Mahan was one of the Samhan
("Three Hans"), along with Byeonhan
and Jinhan
. Baekje
began as a member statelet, but later overtook all of Mahan and became one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea
.
in northern Korea, having lost the throne to Wiman
, fled to the state of Jin state in southern Korea around 194 BCE-180 BCE. He and his followers are thought to have established a base within Jin territory. It is not certain whether Mahan conquered or arose out of this entity, but Mahan was certainly influenced by this influx of northern culture.
Further migration followed the fall of Gojoseon
and establishment of the Chinese commanderies in the Liaoning
region in 108 BC. It is described in the Chinese chronicle San Guo Zhi and the much later Korean chronicles Samguk Yusa
and Samguk Sagi
.
In 1st century CE, the Wolji/Mokji (月支/目支) state, that formed and led Mahan confederacy, was defeated in struggles with Baekje
, another member of Mahan, and consequently losing whole region of present-day Han River basin. But the San Guo Zhi recorded the Han state fallen in struggles with the Lelang Commandery
and Daifang Commandery
in the 246 CE. Under continuous pressure from Baekje, only 20 statelets of Mahan confederacy survived until the late 3rd century. Baekje eventually absorbed or conquered all of Mahan by the 5th century, growing into one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea
, along with Silla
and Goguryeo
.
A wealth of bronze artifacts and production facilities indicate that Mahan was probably the earliest developed of the three Hans. At its height, Mahan covered much of the Han River
Basin and the modern-day provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong
, and Jeolla
, although political unity was strongest led by Mokji state (목지국, 目支國) in Cheonan
, Chungcheong
.
historians identified Mahan with Goguryeo
, which was supported by their works like Samguk Sagi
, Samguk Yusa
and Jewang Ungi
. That historical view was previously given by Choe Chiwon
, a noted Confucian scholar and Historian in the late of the Silla. Apart from the geographical location of Mahan, the Chinese historical record History of Song defines the ethnical origin of the Jeong-an kingdom
, a successor state of Balhae
, as Mahan.
In the late Joseon period, that historical notion came under criticism by an early Silhak
scholar, Han Baek-gyeom who emphasized the linkage between Mahan and Baekje in terms of the geographical location.
Korean Peninsula
The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. It extends southwards for about 684 miles from continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water.Until the end of...
in the Chungcheong
Chungcheong
Chungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
and Jeolla
Jeolla
Jeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
provinces. Arising out of the confluence of Gojoseon
Gojoseon
Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom. Go , meaning "ancient," distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty; Joseon, as it is called in contemporaneous writings, is also romanized as Chosŏn....
migration and the Jin state federation, Mahan was one of the Samhan
Samhan
The Samhan period of Korean history comprises confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan in central and southern Korean peninsula, during the final century BCE and the early centuries CE....
("Three Hans"), along with Byeonhan
Byeonhan confederacy
Byeonhan, also known as Byeonjin, was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the beginning of the Common Era to the 4th century in the southern Korean peninsula...
and Jinhan
Jinhan confederacy
Jinhan was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the 1st century BC to the 4th century AD in the southern Korean peninsula, to the east of the Nakdong River valley, Gyeongsang Province. Jinhan was one of the Samhan , along with Byeonhan and Mahan...
. Baekje
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla....
began as a member statelet, but later overtook all of Mahan and became one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea
Three Kingdoms of Korea
The Three Kingdoms of Korea refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium...
.
History
Mahan probably developed from the existing bronze society of 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, continuing to absorb migration from the north in subsequent centuries. King Jun of the kingdom of GojoseonGojoseon
Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom. Go , meaning "ancient," distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty; Joseon, as it is called in contemporaneous writings, is also romanized as Chosŏn....
in northern Korea, having lost the throne to Wiman
Wiman
Wiman may refer to:*Wei Man, Chinese; founder of a kingdom in north-western Korea in the 2nd century BC*Al Wiman, American reporter*Ann-Marie Wiman , Swedish actress and composer*Carl Wiman , Swedish paleontologist...
, fled to the state of Jin state in southern Korea around 194 BCE-180 BCE. He and his followers are thought to have established a base within Jin territory. It is not certain whether Mahan conquered or arose out of this entity, but Mahan was certainly influenced by this influx of northern culture.
Further migration followed the fall of Gojoseon
Gojoseon
Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom. Go , meaning "ancient," distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty; Joseon, as it is called in contemporaneous writings, is also romanized as Chosŏn....
and establishment of the Chinese commanderies in the Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
region in 108 BC. It is described in the Chinese chronicle San Guo Zhi and the much later Korean chronicles Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends, folktales, and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , as well as to other periods and states before, during, and after the Three Kingdoms period.The text was written in Classical Chinese, which was...
and Samguk Sagi
Samguk Sagi
Samguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...
.
In 1st century CE, the Wolji/Mokji (月支/目支) state, that formed and led Mahan confederacy, was defeated in struggles with Baekje
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla....
, another member of Mahan, and consequently losing whole region of present-day Han River basin. But the San Guo Zhi recorded the Han state fallen in struggles with the Lelang Commandery
Lelang Commandery
Lelang was one of the Chinese commanderies which was established after the fall of Gojoseon in 108 BC until Goguryeo conquered it in 313. Lelang Commandery was located in the northern Korean peninsula with the administrative center near modern P'yongyang....
and Daifang Commandery
Daifang Commandery
Daifang Commandery was one of the remnants of the Four Commanderies of Han in the Korean peninsula.-History:Gongsun Kang, a warlord in Liaodong, separated the southern half from the Lelang commandery and established the Daifang commandery in 204 to make administration more efficient...
in the 246 CE. Under continuous pressure from Baekje, only 20 statelets of Mahan confederacy survived until the late 3rd century. Baekje eventually absorbed or conquered all of Mahan by the 5th century, growing into one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea
Three Kingdoms of Korea
The Three Kingdoms of Korea refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium...
, along with Silla
Silla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
and Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
.
Politics
Kings of Mahan occasionally called themselves "King of Jin," referring to the earlier Jin state and asserting nominal sovereignty over all of Samhan.A wealth of bronze artifacts and production facilities indicate that Mahan was probably the earliest developed of the three Hans. At its height, Mahan covered much of the Han River
Han River (Korea)
The Han River is a major river in South Korea and the fourth longest river on the Korean peninsula after the Amnok, Duman, and Nakdong rivers. It is formed by the confluence of the Namhan River , which originates in Mount Daedeok, and the Bukhan River , which originates on the slopes of Mount...
Basin and the modern-day provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong
Chungcheong
Chungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
, and Jeolla
Jeolla
Jeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
, although political unity was strongest led by Mokji state (목지국, 目支國) in Cheonan
Cheonan
Cheonan is a city located in the northeast corner of South Chungcheong, a province of South Korea, and is 83.6 km south of the capital, Seoul...
, Chungcheong
Chungcheong
Chungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
.
Legacy
GoryeoGoryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
historians identified Mahan with Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, which was supported by their works like Samguk Sagi
Samguk Sagi
Samguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...
, Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends, folktales, and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , as well as to other periods and states before, during, and after the Three Kingdoms period.The text was written in Classical Chinese, which was...
and Jewang Ungi
Jewang ungi
The Jewang Ungi is a historical poem composed by Yi Seung-hyu in 1287, in the late Goryeo period. It depicts the history of Korea from Dangun to King Chungnyeol. A possible translation in English reads: "Rhymed Chronicles of Sovereigns"....
. That historical view was previously given by Choe Chiwon
Choe Chiwon
Choe Chiwon was a noted Korean Confucian official, philosopher, and poet of the late Unified Silla period . He studied for many years in Tang China, passed the Tang imperial examination, and rose to high office there before returning to Silla, where he made ultimately futile attempts to reform the...
, a noted Confucian scholar and Historian in the late of the Silla. Apart from the geographical location of Mahan, the Chinese historical record History of Song defines the ethnical origin of the Jeong-an kingdom
Jeong-an kingdom
The Jeong-ahn Kingdom was a successor state of Balhae founded by Yeol Manhwa. The official Chinese historical record, History of Song states that Jeong-an Kingdom derives from Mahan.- Establishment and Downfall :...
, a successor state of Balhae
Balhae
Balhae was a Manchurian kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-yeong, a Mohe general, whose father was Dae Jung-sang, established Jin , later called Balhae.Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria and...
, as Mahan.
In the late Joseon period, that historical notion came under criticism by an early Silhak
Silhak
Silhak was a Korean Confucian social reform movement in late Joseon Dynasty. Sil means "actual" or "practical," and hak means "studies" or "learning." It developed in response to the increasingly metaphysical nature of Neo-Confucianism that seemed disconnected from the rapid agricultural,...
scholar, Han Baek-gyeom who emphasized the linkage between Mahan and Baekje in terms of the geographical location.
Statelets
According to the San Guo Zhi , Mahan consisted of 54 statelets of up to ten thousand families each:- Gamhae (감해국, 感奚國), present-day IksanIksanIksan is a city and major railway junction in North Jeolla Province, South Korea.The city center and railway junction was formerly called "Iri" , but merged with Iksan County in 1995....
. - Gamhaebiri (감해비리국, 監奚卑離國), present-day Hongseong.
- Geonma (건마국, 乾馬國), present-day IksanIksanIksan is a city and major railway junction in North Jeolla Province, South Korea.The city center and railway junction was formerly called "Iri" , but merged with Iksan County in 1995....
. - Gorap (고랍국, 古臘國), present-day NamwonNamwonNamwon is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. Namwon is about 45 minutes from the provincial capital of Jeonju, which is three hours away from Seoul....
. - Gori (고리국, 古離國), present-day IksanIksanIksan is a city and major railway junction in North Jeolla Province, South Korea.The city center and railway junction was formerly called "Iri" , but merged with Iksan County in 1995....
. - Gobiri (고비리국, 古卑離國), present-day Yangpyeong or Yeoju.
- Gowon (고원국, 古爰國)
- Gotanja (고탄자국, 古誕者國)
- Gopo (고포국, 古蒲國), present-day Buyeo CountyBuyeo CountyBuyeo County is a county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. Buyeo-eup, the county's capital, was the site of the capital of the Baekje kingdom from AD 538 to 660, when it was called Sabi....
. - Guro (구로국, 狗盧國), present-day Cheongyang.
- Gusaodan (구사오단국, 臼斯烏旦國), present-day Jangseong.
- Guso (구소국, 狗素國), present-day JeongeupJeongeupJeongeup is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. The city limits include Naejang-san National Park, a popular destination particularly in autumn due to its foliage...
. - Guhae (구해국, 狗奚國), present-day GangjinGangjinGangjin County is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Gangjin county proper was established in 1895. The county office is located in Gangjin-eup.It is a noted area for the production of traditional Korean celadon...
. - Naebiri (내비리국, 內卑離國)
- Noram (노람국, 怒藍國)
- Daeseoksak (대석삭국, 大石索國), present-day YangjuYangjuYangju is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Yangju is located south of Dongducheon and north of Uijeongbu not far from Seoul.- Attractions:...
or Ganghwa IslandGanghwa IslandGanghwa Island is an island in the estuary of the Han River, on the west coast of South Korea. Ganghwa Island is separated from Gimpo, on the mainland, by a narrow channel, which is spanned by two bridges. The main channel of the Han River separates the island from Gaeseong in North Korea.About...
. - Makro (막로국, 莫盧國)
- Manro (만로국, 萬盧國), present-day BoryeongBoryeongBoryeong, commonly known as Daecheon, is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It is located at , on the coast of the Yellow Sea. It lies on the Janghang Line railroad, which connects it to Seoul via the Gyeongbu Line. It is also connected to the Seohaean Expressway...
or GunsanGunsanGunsan is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. It is located on the south bank of the Geum River just upstream from its exit into the Yellow Sea. Gunsan is served by frequent railway service on the Gunsan Line from Iksan. It is also connected to the Seohaean Expressway.Kunsan Air Base...
. - Morobiri (모로비리국, 牟盧卑離國), present-day Gochang.
- Mosu (모수국, 牟水國), present-day SuwonSuwonSuwon is the provincial capital of Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. A major city of over a million inhabitants, Suwon lies approximately south of Seoul. It is traditionally known as "The City of Filial Piety"....
. - Mokji (목지국, 目支國), present-day CheonanCheonanCheonan is a city located in the northeast corner of South Chungcheong, a province of South Korea, and is 83.6 km south of the capital, Seoul...
. - BaekjeBaekjeBaekje or Paekche was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla....
(백제국, 伯濟國), present-day SeoulSeoulSeoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...
. - Byeokbiri (벽비리국, 辟卑離國), present-day GimjeGimjeGimje is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea.-History:Gimje area has been cultivated since ancient times.Nations of early date ascend in year 200...
. - Bulmi (불미국, 不彌國), present-day NajuNajuNaju is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju and the first character of Naju . Dongshin University is situated in Naju...
. - Bulsabunsa (불사분사국, 不斯濆邪國), present-day JeonjuJeonjuJeonju is a city in South Korea, and the capital of Jeollabuk-do, or North Jeolla Province. It is an important tourist center famous for Korean food, historic buildings, sports activities and innovative festivals.- History :...
. - Bulun (불운국, 不雲國), present-day GongjuGongjuGongju , also spelt Kongju, is a city in South Chungcheong province, South Korea. It is located at .- History :Gongju was formerly named Ungjin and was the capital of Baekje from AD 475 to 538. In this period, Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo...
or BoseongBoseongBoseong County is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Boseong is famous for its green tea leaves. It is also the birthplace of the Korean independence activist Philip Jaisohn.-History:...
. - Biri (비리국, 卑離國), present-day GunsanGunsanGunsan is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. It is located on the south bank of the Geum River just upstream from its exit into the Yellow Sea. Gunsan is served by frequent railway service on the Gunsan Line from Iksan. It is also connected to the Seohaean Expressway.Kunsan Air Base...
. - Bimi (비미국, 卑彌國), present-day Seocheon.
- Saro (사로국, 駟盧國), present-day Hongseong.
- Sangoe (상외국, 桑外國), present-day HwaseongHwaseongHwaseong or Hwasong can refer to:*Hwaseong City, a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea*Hwasŏng , a county in North Hamgyong province, North Korea...
. - Soseoksak (소석삭국, 小石索國), present-day Gyodong Island.
- Sowigeon (소위건국, 素謂乾國), present-day BoryeongBoryeongBoryeong, commonly known as Daecheon, is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It is located at , on the coast of the Yellow Sea. It lies on the Janghang Line railroad, which connects it to Seoul via the Gyeongbu Line. It is also connected to the Seohaean Expressway...
. - Sokrobulsa (속로불사국, 速盧不斯國), present-day Gimpo.
- Sinbulhwal (신분활국, 臣濆活國), present-day AnseongAnseongAnseong is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea, 80 km south of Seoul. Its geographical location is .Anseong promotes itself as "The City of Masters". It is known for producing brassware and arts and crafts. From late Spring to Fall, Anseong is holds its own Namsadang Neuri Festival...
or Gapyeong. - Sinsodo (신소도국, 臣蘇塗國), present-day Taean.
- Sinwunsin (신운신국, 臣雲新國), present-day CheonanCheonanCheonan is a city located in the northeast corner of South Chungcheong, a province of South Korea, and is 83.6 km south of the capital, Seoul...
. - Sinheun (신흔국, 臣釁國), present-day DaejeonDaejeonDaejeon is South Korea's fifth largest metropolis and the provincial capital of Chungnam. Located in the center of the country, Daejeon had a population of over 1.5 million in 2010. It is at the crossroads of Gyeongbu railway, Honam railway, Gyeongbu Expressway, and Honam Expressway. Within the...
or AsanAsanAsan is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It is located at , bordering the Seoul Metropolitan Area to the north. Asan has a population of approximately 250,000.Asan is known for its hot springs and is a city of spas....
. - Arim (아림국, 兒林國), present-day Seocheon or Yesan.
- Yeoraebiri (여래비리국, 如來卑離國), present-day IksanIksanIksan is a city and major railway junction in North Jeolla Province, South Korea.The city center and railway junction was formerly called "Iri" , but merged with Iksan County in 1995....
. - Yeomro (염로국, 冉路國), present-day AsanAsanAsan is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It is located at , bordering the Seoul Metropolitan Area to the north. Asan has a population of approximately 250,000.Asan is known for its hot springs and is a city of spas....
. - Wuhyumotak (우휴모탁국, 優休牟涿國), present-day BucheonBucheonBucheon is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. It is sandwiched between Incheon and Seoul. Manufacturing operations are located in the city.Bucheon promotes itself as the cultural centre of the Seoul Metropolitan Area...
. - Wonyang (원양국, 爰襄國), present-day HwaseongHwaseongHwaseong or Hwasong can refer to:*Hwaseong City, a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea*Hwasŏng , a county in North Hamgyong province, North Korea...
or PajuPajuPaju is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Paju was made a city in 1997; it had previously been a county .The city is located just south of Panmunjeom on the 38th parallel. To defend the Korean capital, Seoul, many US and Korean army bases are set up in the city. In 2002, the northernmost...
. - Wonji (원지국, 爰池國), present-day YeosuYeosuYeosu is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Old Yeosu City, which was founded in 1949, Yeocheon City, founded in 1986, and Yeocheon County were merged into a new city in 1998....
. - Ilnan (일난국, 一難國)
- Ilri (일리국, 一離國)
- Ilhwa (일화국, 日華國)
- Imsoban (임소반국, 臨素半國), present-day GunsanGunsanGunsan is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. It is located on the south bank of the Geum River just upstream from its exit into the Yellow Sea. Gunsan is served by frequent railway service on the Gunsan Line from Iksan. It is also connected to the Seohaean Expressway.Kunsan Air Base...
. - Jarimoro (자리모로국, 咨離牟盧國), present-day IcheonIcheonIcheon is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. It should not be confused with the much larger Incheon Metropolitan City. Neighboring districts include Yeoju County, Gwangju City, Yongin City, and Anseong City within Gyeonggi province, as well as Eumseong County in North Chungcheong...
. - Jiban (지반국, 支半國), present-day Buan.
- Jichim (지침국, 支侵國), present-day Eumseong.
- Cheopro (첩로국, 捷盧國), present-day JeongeupJeongeupJeongeup is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. The city limits include Naejang-san National Park, a popular destination particularly in autumn due to its foliage...
. - Chori (초리국, 楚離國), present-day Goheung.
- Chosandobiri (초산도비리국, 楚山塗卑離國), present-day Jindo County.
- Chiriguk (치리국국, 致利鞠國), present-day Seocheon.