Maglev is a system of transportation that uses magnetic levitation to suspend, guide and propel vehicles from magnets rather than using mechanical methods, such as friction-reliant wheels, axles and bearings. Maglev transport is a means of flying a vehicle or object along a guideway by using magnets to create both lift and thrust, only a few inches above the guideway surface. High-speed Maglev vehicles are lifted off their guideway and thus move more smoothly, quietly and require less maintenance than wheeled mass transit systems – regardless of speed. This non-reliance on friction also means that acceleration and deceleration can far surpass that of existing forms of transport. The power needed for levitation is not a particularly large percentage of the overall energy consumption; most of the power used is needed to overcome air resistance (
dragIn fluid dynamics, drag refers to forces which act on a solid object in the direction of the relative fluid flow velocity...
), as with any other high-speed form of transport.
The highest recorded speed of a Maglev train is 581 km/h (361 mph), achieved in Japan by the CJR's MLX01 superconducting Maglev in 2003, 6 km/h (3.7 mph) faster than the conventional
TGVThe TGV is France's high-speed rail service, currently operated by SNCF Voyages, the long-distance rail branch of SNCF, the French national rail operator....
wheel-rail speed record.
Differences in construction costs can affect chances for profitability. Maglev advocates claim that, at very high speeds, the wear and tear from friction along with the concentrated pounding from wheels on rails accelerate equipment deterioration and prevent mechanically-based train systems from achieving a Maglev-based train system's high level of performance and low levels of maintenance;. Indeed, it was concerns about maintenance and safety that convinced Chinese authorities to announce a slowing down of all new high-speed trains to 300 km/h (186.4 mph). There is a good reason why the rest of the world's fast trains limit their operations to similar top speeds and why the Central Japan Railway (CJR) is planning to build its newest Shinkansen (Chuo) line using Maglev technology.
There are presently only two commercial Maglev transport systems in operation, with two others under construction. In April 2004, Shanghai began commercial operations of the high-speed Transrapid system. Beginning March 2005, the Japanese began operation of the HSST "Linimo" line in time for the 2005 World Expo. In its first three months, the Linimo line carried over 10 million passengers. The Koreans and the Chinese are both building low speed Maglev lines of their own design, one in Beijing and the other at Seoul's Incheon Airport. High reliability and extremely low maintenance are hallmarks of Maglev transport lines.
First patent
High-speed transportation patents were granted to various inventors throughout the world. Early United States patents for a
linear motorA linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled" so that instead of producing a torque it produces a linear force along its length...
propelled train were awarded to the inventor, Alfred Zehden (German). The inventor was awarded (21 June 1907) and (21 August 1907). In 1907, another early electromagnetic
transportation system was developed by F. S. Smith. A series of German patents for magnetic levitation trains propelled by linear motors were awarded to Hermann Kemper between 1937 and 1941. An early modern type of Maglev train was described in ,
Magnetic system of transportation, by G. R. Greenfly (25 August 1959). The first use of "Maglev" in a United States patent was in "
Magnetic levitation guidance system" by Canadian Patents and Development Limited.
Development
In the late 1940s, Professor
Eric LaithwaiteEric Roberts Laithwaite was a British electrical engineer, known as the "Father of Maglev" for his development of the linear induction motor and maglev rail system.- Biography :...
of Imperial College in London developed the first full-size working model of the
linear induction motorA linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled" so that instead of producing a torque it produces a linear force along its length...
. He became professor of heavy electrical engineering at Imperial College in 1964, where he continued his successful development of the linear motor. As the linear motor does not require physical contact between the vehicle and guideway, it became a common fixture on many advanced transportation systems being developed in the 1960s and 70s. Laithwaite himself joined development of one such project, the
Tracked HovercraftTracked Hovercraft was an experimental high speed train developed in the United Kingdom during the 1960s. It combined two British inventions, the hovercraft and linear induction motor, in an effort to produce a train system that would provide 250 mph inter-city service with lowered capital...
, although funding for this project was cancelled in 1973.
The linear motor was naturally suited to use with Maglev systems as well. In the early 1970s, Laithwaite discovered a new arrangement of magnets,
magnetic riverMagnetic river is an electrodynamic suspension magnetic levitation system designed by Eastham and Eric Laithwaite in 1974.It consists of a thin conductive plate on an AC linear induction motor...
, that allowed a single linear motor to produce both lift as well as forward thrust, allowing a Maglev system to be built with a single set of magnets. Working at the
British Rail Research DivisionThe British Rail Research Division came into being in 1964 directly under the control of the British Railways Board, moving into purpose-built premises at the Railway Technical Centre in Derby. The intention was to improve railway reliability and efficiency, while reducing costs and improving revenue...
in
DerbyDerby , is a city and unitary authority in the East Midlands region of England. It lies upon the banks of the River Derwent and is located in the south of the ceremonial county of Derbyshire. In the 2001 census, the population of the city was 233,700, whilst that of the Derby Urban Area was 229,407...
, along with teams at several
civil engineeringCivil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings...
firms, the "traverse-flux" system was developed into a working system.
The first commercial Maglev
people moverA people mover or automated people mover is a fully automated, grade-separated mass transit system.The term is generally used only to describe systems serving relatively small areas such as airports, downtown districts or theme parks, but is sometimes applied to considerably more complex automated...
was simply called "MAGLEV" and officially opened in 1984 near
BirminghamBirmingham is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands of England. It is the most populous British city outside the capital London, with a population of 1,036,900 , and lies at the heart of the West Midlands conurbation, the second most populous urban area in the United Kingdom with a...
, England. It operated on an elevated 600 metres (1,968.5 ft) section of monorail track between Birmingham International Airport and
Birmingham International railway stationBirmingham International railway station is located in the borough of Solihull, just east of the city of Birmingham in England.The station is on the Rugby-Birmingham-Stafford Line 14 km east of Birmingham New Street and serves both Birmingham International Airport and the National Exhibition...
, running at speeds up to 42 km/h (26.1 mph); the system was eventually closed in 1995 due to reliability problems.
New York, United States 1968
In 1961, when he was delayed during rush hour traffic on the
Throgs Neck BridgeThe Throgs Neck Bridge is a suspension bridge opened on January 11, 1961, which carries Interstate 295 over the East River where it meets the Long Island Sound. The bridge connects the Throggs Neck section of the Bronx with the Bay Terrace section of Queens...
,
James PowellJames R. Powell is an American physicist notable — together with Dr. Gordon Danby — for his work on superconducting Maglev, for which he shared the Franklin Institute "Medal 2000 for Engineering"....
, a researcher at
Brookhaven National LaboratoryBrookhaven National Laboratory , is a United States national laboratory located in Upton, New York on Long Island, and was formally established in 1947 at the site of Camp Upton, a former U.S. Army base...
(BNL), thought of using magnetically levitated transportation to solve the traffic problem. Powell and BNL colleague
Gordon DanbyGordon T. Danby is an American physicist notable for his work on superconducting Maglev, for which he shared the Franklin Institute 'Medal 2000 for Engineering'.-References:...
jointly worked out a MagLev concept using static magnets mounted on a moving vehicle to induce electrodynamic lifting and stabilizing forces in specially shaped loops on a guideway.
Hamburg, Germany 1979
TransrapidTransrapid is a German high-speed monorail train using magnetic levitation. Based on a patent from 1934, planning of the Transrapid system started in 1969. The test facility for the system in Emsland, Germany was completed in 1987...
05 was the first Maglev train with longstator propulsion licensed for passenger transportation. In 1979, a 908 m track was opened in
Hamburg-History:The first historic name for the city was, according to Claudius Ptolemy's reports, Treva.But the city takes its modern name, Hamburg, from the first permanent building on the site, a castle whose construction was ordered by the Emperor Charlemagne in AD 808...
for the first International Transportation Exhibition (IVA 79). There was so much interest that operations had to be extended three months after the exhibition finished, having carried more than 50,000 passengers. It was reassembled in
KasselKassel is a town located on the Fulda River in northern Hesse, Germany. It is the administrative seat of the Kassel Regierungsbezirk and the Kreis of the same name and has approximately 195,000 inhabitants.- History :...
in 1980.
Birmingham, United Kingdom 1984–1995
The world's first commercial automated Maglev system was a low-speed Maglev shuttle that ran from the airport terminal of Birmingham International Airport to the nearby
Birmingham International railway stationBirmingham International railway station is located in the borough of Solihull, just east of the city of Birmingham in England.The station is on the Rugby-Birmingham-Stafford Line 14 km east of Birmingham New Street and serves both Birmingham International Airport and the National Exhibition...
between 1984–1995. The length of the track was 600 metres (1,968.5 ft), and trains "flew" at an altitude of 15 millimetre (0.590551181102362 in), levitated by electromagnets, and propelled with linear induction motors. It was in operation for nearly eleven years, but
obsolescenceObsolescence is the state of being which occurs when an object, service or practice is no longer wanted even though it may still be in good working order. Obsolescence frequently occurs because a replacement has become available that is superior in one or more aspects. Obsolete refers to something...
problems with the electronic systems made it unreliable in its later years. One of the original cars is now on display at
RailworldRailworld is a railway museum in Peterborough.http://www.railworld.net/ It is located beside the Peterborough Nene Valley railway station but it is a separate organisation.-Exhibits:Alco switcher...
in Peterborough, together with the RTV31 hover train vehicle.
Several favourable conditions existed when the link was built:
- The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes and extension to the 8 tonne vehicle was easy.
- Electrical power was easily available.
- The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms.
- Only one crossing over a public road was required and no steep gradients were involved.
- Land was owned by the railway or airport.
- Local industries and councils were supportive.
- Some government finance was provided and because of sharing work, the cost per organization was not high.
After the original system closed in 1995, the original guideway lay dormant. The guideway was reused in 2003 when the replacement cable-hauled
AirRail LinkThe AirRail Link is a people mover linking Birmingham Airport with Birmingham International railway station and the National Exhibition Centre , in the United Kingdom...
Cable LinerThe Cable Liner and Cable Liner Shuttle is a range of automated people mover products designed by DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car for use at airports, in city centres, intermodal passenger transport connections, park and ride facilities, campuses, resorts and amusement parks.The design is notable for...
people moverA people mover or automated people mover is a fully automated, grade-separated mass transit system.The term is generally used only to describe systems serving relatively small areas such as airports, downtown districts or theme parks, but is sometimes applied to considerably more complex automated...
was opened.
Japan 1985–
In Japan, there are two independently developed Maglev trains. One is HSST by
Japan Airlinesis an airline headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan. It is the flag carrier of Japan and its main hubs are Tokyo's Narita International Airport and Tokyo International Airport , as well as Nagoya's Chūbu Centrair International Airport and Osaka's Kansai International Airport...
and the other, which is more well-known, is
JR-MaglevJR-Maglev is a magnetic levitation train system developed by the Central Japan Railway Company and Railway Technical Research Institute . JR-Maglev MLX01 is one of the latest designs of a series of Maglev trains in development in Japan since the 1970s...
by Japan Railways Group.
The development of the latter started in 1969, and
Miyazakiis a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyushu. The capital is the city of Miyazaki.- History :Historically, after the Meiji Restoration, Hyūga Province was renamed Miyazaki Prefecture....
test track had regularly hit 517 km/h (321.2 mph) by 1979 but, after an accident that destroyed the train, a new design was decided upon. In
Okazakiis a city located in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. As of August 2011, the city had an estimated population of 373,339 and a population density of 964 persons per km². The total area was 387.24 km².-Geography:...
, Japan (1987), the JR-Maglev took a test ride at the Okazaki exhibition. Tests through the 1980s continued in Miyazaki before transferring a far larger and elaborate test track, 20 km (12.4 mi) long, in Yamanashi in 1997.
Development of HSST started in 1974, based on technologies introduced from Germany. In Tsukuba, Japan (1985), the HSST-03 (
Linimo, formally the is a magnetic levitation train line in Aichi, Japan, near the city of Nagoya. While primarily built to serve the Expo 2005 fair site, the line is still operating to serve the local community.Linimo is owned and operated by...
) wins popularity in spite of being 30 km/h (18.6 mph) at the
Tsukuba World ExpositionExpo '85, officially called , was a world's fair held in Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan between Sunday, March 17 and Monday, September 16, 1985. The theme of the fair was "Dwellings and Surroundings - Science and Technology for Man at Home"...
. In
Saitama' is the capital and the most populous city of Saitama Prefecture in Japan, situated in the south-east of the prefecture. Its area incorporates the former cities of Urawa, Ōmiya, Yono and Iwatsuki. It is a city designated by government ordinance...
, Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was revealed at the Saitama exhibition performed in Kumagaya. Its fastest recorded speed was 30 km/h (18.6 mph).
Vancouver, Canada, and Hamburg, Germany 1986–1988
In Vancouver, Canada (1986), the JR-Maglev was exhibited at
Expo 86The 1986 World Exposition on Transportation and Communication, or simply Expo '86, was a World's Fair held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada from Friday, May 2 until Monday, October 13, 1986...
. Guests could ride the train along a short section of track at the fairgrounds. In Hamburg, Germany (1988), the TR-07 in international traffic exhibition (IVA88) performed Hamburg.
Berlin, Germany 1989–1991
In
West BerlinWest Berlin was a political exclave that existed between 1949 and 1990. It comprised the western regions of Berlin, which were bordered by East Berlin and parts of East Germany. West Berlin consisted of the American, British, and French occupation sectors, which had been established in 1945...
, the
M-BahnThe M-Bahn or Magnetbahn was an elevated Maglev train line operating in Berlin, Germany in 1991. The line was 1.6 km in length, and featured three stations, two of which were newly constructed...
was built in the late 1980s. It was a driverless Maglev system with a 1.6 km (0.994196378639691 mi) track connecting three stations. Testing in passenger traffic started in August 1989, and regular operation started in July 1991. Although the line largely followed a new elevated alignment, it terminated at the
U-BahnThe Berlin is a rapid transit railway in Berlin, the capital city of Germany, and is a major part of the public transport system of that city. Opened in 1902, the serves 173 stations spread across ten lines, with a total track length of , about 80% of which is underground...
station Gleisdreieck, where it took over a platform that was then no longer in use; it was from a line that formerly ran to
East BerlinEast Berlin was the name given to the eastern part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990. It consisted of the Soviet sector of Berlin that was established in 1945. The American, British and French sectors became West Berlin, a part strongly associated with West Germany but a free city...
. After the fall of the
Berlin WallThe Berlin Wall was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin...
, plans were set in motion to reconnect this line (today's U2). Deconstruction of the M-Bahn line began only two months after regular service began that was called Pundai project and was completed in February 1992.
Overview
The term "Maglev" refers not only to the vehicles, but to the railway system as well, specifically designed for magnetic levitation and propulsion. All operational implementations of Maglev technology have had minimal overlap with wheeled train technology and have not been compatible with conventional rail tracks. Because they cannot share existing infrastructure, these Maglev systems must be designed as complete transportation systems. The Applied Levitation SPM Maglev system is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and would permit Maglev vehicles and conventional trains to operate at the same time on the same right of way. MAN in Germany also designed a Maglev system that worked with conventional rails, but it was never fully developed.
- See also JR-Maglev#Fundamental technology elements, Transrapid#Technology, Magnetic levitation
Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended with no support other than magnetic fields...
There are two particularly notable types of maglev technology:
- For electromagnetic suspension
Electromagnetic Suspension is the magnetic levitation of an object achieved by constantly altering the strength of a magnetic field produced by electromagnets using a feedback loop...
(EMS), electronically controlled electromagnets in the train attract it to a magnetically conductive (usually steel) track.
- Electrodynamic suspension
Electrodynamic suspension is a form of magnetic levitation in which there are conductors which are exposed to time-varying magnetic fields. This induces currents in the conductors that creates a repulsive magnetic field which holds the two objects apart....
(EDS) uses permanent magnets which create a magnetic field that induces currents in nearby metallic conductors when there is relative movement which pushes the train away from the rail.
Another experimental technology, which was designed, proven mathematically, peer reviewed, and patented, but is yet to be built, is the magnetodynamic suspension (MDS), which uses the attractive magnetic force of a permanent magnet array near a steel track to lift the train and hold it in place. Other technologies such as repulsive permanent magnets and superconducting magnets have seen some research.
Electromagnetic suspension
In current electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train levitates above a steel rail while
electromagnetAn electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off...
s, attached to the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. The system is typically arranged on a series of C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle, and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated between the upper and lower edges.
Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the cube of distance, so minor changes in distance between the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are dynamically unstable – if there is a slight divergence from the optimum position, the tendency will be to exacerbate this, and complex systems of feedback control are required to maintain a train at a constant distance from the track, (approximately 15 millimetre (0.590551181102362 in)).
The major advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they work at all speeds, unlike electrodynamic systems which only work at a minimum speed of about 30 km/h (18.6 mph). This eliminates the need for a separate low-speed suspension system, and can simplify the track layout as a result. On the downside, the dynamic instability of the system demands high tolerances of the track, which can offset, or eliminate this advantage. Laithwaite, highly skeptical of the concept, was concerned that in order to make a track with the required tolerances, the gap between the magnets and rail would have to be increased to the point where the magnets would be unreasonably large. In practice, this problem was addressed through increased performance of the feedback systems, which allow the system to run with close tolerances.
Electrodynamic suspension
In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the rail and the train exert a magnetic field, and the train is levitated by the repulsive force between these magnetic fields. The magnetic field in the train is produced by either superconducting magnets (as in
JR-MaglevJR-Maglev is a magnetic levitation train system developed by the Central Japan Railway Company and Railway Technical Research Institute . JR-Maglev MLX01 is one of the latest designs of a series of Maglev trains in development in Japan since the 1970s...
) or by an array of permanent magnets (as in
InductrackInductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and permanent magnets on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in one of two configurations, a "ladder track" and a "laminated track"...
). The repulsive force in the track is created by an
induced magnetic fieldElectromagnetic induction is the production of an electric current across a conductor moving through a magnetic field. It underlies the operation of generators, transformers, induction motors, electric motors, synchronous motors, and solenoids....
in wires or other conducting strips in the track. A major advantage of the repulsive maglev systems is that they are naturally stable—minor
narrowing in distance between the track and the magnets creates strong forces to repel the magnets back to their original position, while a slight increase in distance greatly reduces the force and again returns the vehicle to the right separation. No feedback control is needed.
Repulsive systems have a major downside as well. At slow speeds, the current induced in these coils and the resultant magnetic flux is not large enough to support the weight of the train. For this reason the train must have wheels or some other form of landing gear to support the train until it reaches a speed that can sustain levitation. Since a train may stop at any location, due to equipment problems for instance, the entire track must be able to support both low-speed and high-speed operation. Another downside is that the repulsive system naturally creates a field in the track in front and to the rear of the lift magnets, which act against the magnets and create a form of drag. This is generally only a concern at low speeds, at higher speeds the effect does not have time to build to its full potential and other forms of drag dominate.
The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic system's advantage, however, as it creates a varying force in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train, without the need for a separate reaction plate, as in most linear motor systems. Laithwaite led development of such "traverse-flux" systems at his Imperial College laboratory. Alternatively, propulsion coils on the guideway are used to exert a force on the magnets in the train and make the train move forward. The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a
linear motorA linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled" so that instead of producing a torque it produces a linear force along its length...
: an alternating current flowing through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along the track. The frequency of the alternating current is synchronized to match the speed of the train. The offset between the field exerted by magnets on the train and the applied field creates a force moving the train forward.
Pros and cons of different technologies
Each implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves advantages and disadvantages.
|
| Technology |
|
Pros |
|
Cons |
|
| EMS (Electromagnetic suspension Electromagnetic Suspension is the magnetic levitation of an object achieved by constantly altering the strength of a magnetic field produced by electromagnets using a feedback loop...
) |
Magnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are less than EDS; proven, commercially available technology that can attain very high speeds (500 km/h (310.7 mph)); no wheels or secondary propulsion system needed. |
The separation between the vehicle and the guideway must be constantly monitored and corrected by computer systems to avoid collision due to the unstable nature of electromagnetic attraction; due to the system's inherent instability and the required constant corrections by outside systems, vibration issues may occur. |
|
EDS
(Electrodynamic suspension) |
Onboard magnets and large margin between rail and train enable highest recorded train speeds (581 km/h (361 mph)) and heavy load capacity; has demonstrated (December 2005) successful operations using high-temperature superconductor High-temperature superconductors are materials that have a superconducting transition temperature above . From 1960 to 1980, 30 K was thought to be the highest theoretically possible Tc...
s in its onboard magnets, cooled with inexpensive liquid nitrogenNitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
. |
Strong magnetic fields onboard the train would make the train inaccessible to passengers with pacemakersA pacemaker is a medical device that uses electrical impulses, delivered by electrodes contacting the heart muscles, to regulate the beating of the heart...
or magnetic data storage media such as hard drives and credit cards, necessitating the use of magnetic shielding; limitations on guideway inductivity limit the maximum speed of the vehicle; vehicle must be wheeled for travel at low speeds. |
|
| Inductrack Inductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and permanent magnets on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in one of two configurations, a "ladder track" and a "laminated track"...
System (Permanent Magnet EDS) |
Failsafe Suspension Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels. Suspension systems serve a dual purpose — contributing to the car's roadholding/handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping vehicle occupants...
—no power required to activate magnets; Magnetic field is localized below the car; can generate enough force at low speeds (around 5 km/h (3.1 mph)) to levitate maglev train; in case of power failure cars slow down on their own safely; Halbach arrayA Halbach array is a special arrangement of permanent magnets that augments the magnetic field on one side of the array while cancelling the field to near zero on the other side...
s of permanent magnets may prove more cost-effective than electromagnets. |
Requires either wheels or track segments that move for when the vehicle is stopped. New technology that is still under development (as of 2008) and as yet has no commercial version or full scale system prototype. |
Neither
InductrackInductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and permanent magnets on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in one of two configurations, a "ladder track" and a "laminated track"...
nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill, although
InductrackInductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and permanent magnets on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in one of two configurations, a "ladder track" and a "laminated track"...
provides levitation down to a much lower speed; wheels are required for these systems. EMS systems are wheel-less.
The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), and Korean Rotem EMS maglevs levitate at a standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate levitation down to 10 km/h (6.2 mph) speed, using the power from onboard batteries. This is not the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.
Propulsion
An EDS system can provide both
levitationLevitation is the process by which an object is suspended by a physical force against gravity, in a stable position without solid physical contact...
and
propulsionGround propulsion is a different term than transport, because it refers to solid bodies being propelled. Those bodies may be mounted on vats or using wheels while the latter dominates for standard applications....
using an onboard linear motor. EMS systems can only levitate the train using the magnets onboard, not propel it forward. As such, vehicles need some other technology for
propulsionGround propulsion is a different term than transport, because it refers to solid bodies being propelled. Those bodies may be mounted on vats or using wheels while the latter dominates for standard applications....
. A linear motor (propulsion coils) mounted in the track is one solution. Over long distances where the cost of propulsion coils could be prohibitive, a
propellerAircraft propellers or airscrews convert rotary motion from piston engines or turboprops to provide propulsive force. They may be fixed or variable pitch. Early aircraft propellers were carved by hand from solid or laminated wood with later propellers being constructed from metal...
or
jet engineA jet engine is a reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet to generate thrust by jet propulsion and in accordance with Newton's laws of motion. This broad definition of jet engines includes turbojets, turbofans, rockets, ramjets, pulse jets...
could be used.
Stability
Earnshaw's theoremEarnshaw's theorem states that a collection of point charges cannot be maintained in a stable stationary equilibrium configuration solely by the electrostatic interaction of the charges. This was first proven by British mathematician Samuel Earnshaw in 1842. It is usually referenced to magnetic...
shows that any combination of static magnets cannot be in a stable equilibrium. However, the various levitation systems achieve stable levitation by violating the assumptions of Earnshaw's theorem. Earnshaw's theorem assumes that the magnets are static and unchanging in field strength and that the relative permeability is constant and greater than unity everywhere. EMS systems rely on active electronic
stabilizationA voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components...
. Such systems constantly measure the bearing distance and adjust the electromagnet current accordingly. All EDS systems are moving systems (no EDS system can levitate the train unless it is in motion).
Because Maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation of pitch, roll and yaw is required by magnetic technology. In addition to rotation, surge (forward and backward motions), sway (sideways motion) or heave (up and down motions) can be problematic with some technologies.
If superconducting magnets are used on a train above a track made out of a permanent magnet, then the train would be locked in to its lateral position on the track. It can move linearly along the track, but not off the track. This is due to the
Meissner effectThe Meissner effect is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state. The German physicists Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered the phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the magnetic field distribution outside superconducting tin...
.
Guidance
Some systems use Null Current systems (also sometimes called Null Flux systems); these use a coil which is wound so that it enters two opposing, alternating fields, so that the average flux in the loop is zero. When the vehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows, but if it moves off-line this creates a changing flux that generates a field that pushes it back into line. However, some systems use coils that try to remain as much as possible in the null flux point between repulsive magnets, as this reduces eddy current losses.
Evacuated tubes
Some systems (notably the
swissmetroSwissmetro was a futuristic Swiss national transportation project using vactrain technology that went into liquidation in November 2009 because of a lack of support. Based on high-speed maglev trains travelling in low-pressure tunnels, the speeds would have been about 500 kilometres per hour.Such...
system) propose the use of vactrains—maglev train technology used in evacuated (airless) tubes, which removes air drag. This has the potential to increase speed and efficiency greatly, as most of the energy for conventional Maglev trains is lost in air drag.
One potential risk for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be exposed to the risk of cabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can repressurize the tube in the event of a train malfunction or accident. The RAND Corporation has designed a vacuum tube train that could, in theory, cross the Atlantic or the USA in ~21 minutes.
Power and energy usage
Energy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train, and may be regained when the train slows down ("regenerative braking"). It is also used to make the train levitate and to stabilise the movement of the train. The main part of the energy is needed to force the train through the air ("air drag"). Also some energy is used for air conditioning, heating, lighting and other miscellaneous systems.The maglev trains are powered on electromagnetism.
At very low speeds the percentage of power (energy per time) used for levitation can be significant. Also for very short distances the energy used for acceleration might be considerable. But the power used to overcome air drag increases with the cube of the velocity, and hence dominates at high speed (note: the energy needed per mile increases by the square of the velocity and the time decreases linearly.).
Comparison with conventional trains
Major comparative differences exist between the two technologies. First of all, maglevs are not trains and are more similar to wingless aircraft than wheel-less trains. Maglev transport is non-contact, electric powered and controlled flight. It does not rely on the wheels, bearings and axles common to mechanical friction-reliant rail systems. Differences also lie in maintenance requirements and the reliability of electronic versus mechanically based systems, all-weather operations, backward-compatibility, rolling resistance, weight, noise, design constraints, and control systems.
- Maintenance Requirements Of Electronic Versus Mechanical Systems: Maglev trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for nearly insignificant guideway maintenance. Their electronic vehicle maintenance is minimal and more closely aligned with aircraft maintenance schedules based on hours of operation, rather than on speed or distance traveled. Traditional rail is subject to the wear and tear of miles of friction on mechanical systems and increases exponentially with speed, unlike maglev systems. This basic difference reveals the huge cost advantage of maglev over rail and also directly affects system reliability, availability and sustainability.
- All-Weather Operations: While maglev advocates claim trains currently in operation are not stopped, slowed, or have their schedules affected by snow, ice, severe cold, rain or high winds, they have not been operated in the wide range of conditions that traditional friction-based rail systems have operated. Also, maglev vehicles accelerate and decelerate faster than mechanical systems regardless of the slickness of the guideway or the slope of the grade because they are non-contact systems.
- Backwards Compatibility: Maglev trains currently in operation are not compatible with conventional track, and therefore require all new infrastructure for their entire route, but this is not a negative if high levels of reliability and low operational costs are the goal. By contrast conventional high speed trains such as the TGV are able to run at reduced speeds on existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing expenditure where new infrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as the final approaches to city terminals), or on extensions where traffic does not justify new infrastructure. However,this "shared track approach" ignores mechanical rail's high maintenance requirements, costs and disruptions to travel from periodic maintenance on these existing lines. It is claimed by maglev advocates that the use of a completely separate maglev infrastructure more than pays for itself with dramatically higher levels of all-weather operational reliability and almost insignificant maintenance costs, but these claims have yet to be proven in an operational setting as intense as many traditional rail operations,and ignore the difference in maglev and traditional rail initial construction costs. So, maglev advocates would argue against rail backward compatibility and its concomitant high maintenance needs and costs.
- Efficiency: Due to the lack of physical contact between the track and the vehicle, maglev trains experience no rolling resistance
Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the resistance that occurs when a round object such as a ball or tire rolls on a flat surface, in steady velocity straight line motion. It is caused mainly by the deformation of the object, the deformation of the surface, or...
, leaving only air resistance and electromagnetic dragEddy currents are electric currents induced in conductors when a conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic field; due to relative motion of the field source and conductor or due to variations of the field with time. This can cause a circulating flow of electrons, or current, within the body of...
, potentially improving power efficiency.
- Weight: The weight of the electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs seems like a major design issue to the uninitiated. A strong magnetic field is required to levitate a maglev vehicle. For the Transrapid, this is between 1 and 2 kilowatts per ton. Another path for levitation is the use of superconductor magnets to reduce the energy consumption of the electromagnets, and the cost of maintaining the field. However, a 50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70 tones, which consumes between 70 and 140 kW. Most energy use for the TRI is for propulsion and overcoming the friction of air resistance at speeds over 100 mph.
- Noise: Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air, maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at equivalent speeds. However, the psychoacoustic profile of the maglev may reduce this benefit: a study concluded that maglev noise should be rated like road traffic while conventional trains have a 5–10 dB "bonus" as they are found less annoying at the same loudness level.
- Design Comparisons: Braking and overhead wire wear have caused problems for the Fastech 360
Fastech 360 is the name given to a pair of former experimental high-speed trains developed by East Japan Railway Company to test technology for the next-generation Shinkansen rolling stock. The name is a portmanteau of Fast, Technology, and 360 km/h , the target operational speed for production...
railed Shinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues. Magnet reliability at higher temperatures is a countervailing comparative disadvantage (see suspension types), but new alloys and manufacturing techniques have resulted in magnets that maintain their levitational force at higher temperatures.
- Control Systems: There are no signalling systems for high or low speed maglev systems. There is no need since all these systems are computer controlled. Besides, at the extremely high speeds of these systems, no human operator could react fast enough to slow down or stop in time. This is also why these systems require dedicated rights of way and are usually proposed to be elevated several meters above ground level. Two maglev system microwave towers are in contact with an EMS vehicle consist at all times for two-way communication between the vehicle and the central command centre's main operations computer. There are no need for train whistles or horns, either.
Comparison with aircraft
For many systems, it is possible to define a
lift-to-drag ratioIn aerodynamics, the lift-to-drag ratio, or L/D ratio, is the amount of lift generated by a wing or vehicle, divided by the drag it creates by moving through the air...
. For maglev systems these ratios can exceed that of aircraft (for example
InductrackInductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and permanent magnets on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in one of two configurations, a "ladder track" and a "laminated track"...
can approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher than any aircraft). This can make maglev more efficient per kilometre. However, at high cruising speeds, aerodynamic drag is much larger than lift-induced drag. Jet transport aircraft take advantage of low air density at high altitudes to significantly reduce drag during cruise, hence despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they can travel more efficiently at high speeds than maglev trains that operate at sea level (this has been proposed to be fixed by the
vactrainA vactrain is a proposed, as-yet-unbuilt design for future high-speed railroad transportation. This would entail building maglev lines through evacuated or partly evacuated tubes or tunnels...
concept).
While aircraft are theoretically more flexible, commercial air routes are not. High-speed maglevs are designed to be trip-time competitive with flights of 800 kilometers/500 miles or less. Additionally, while maglevs can service several cities in between such routes and be on time in all weather conditions, airlines cannot come close to such reliability or performance.
Because maglev vehicles are powered by electricity and do not carry fuel, maglev fares are less susceptible to the volatile price swings created by oil markets. Travelling via maglev also offers a significant safety margin over air travel since maglevs are designed not to crash into other maglevs or leave their guideways. Aircraft fuel is a significant danger during takeoff and landing accidents. Also, electric trains emit little direct carbon dioxide emissions, especially when powered by
nuclearNuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity...
or
renewableRenewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable . About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from...
sources, but more than aircraft if powered by fossil fuels.
Economics
The Shanghai maglev demonstration line cost US$1.2 billion to build. This total includes infrastructure capital costs such as right-of-way clearing, extensive pile driving, on-site guideway manufacturing, in-situ pier construction every 25 meters, a maintenance facility and vehicle yard, several switches, two stations, operations and control systems, power feed system, cables and inverters, and operational training. Ridership is not a primary focus of this demonstration line, since the Longyang Road station is on the eastern outskirts of Shanghai. Once the line is extended to South Shanghai Train station and Hongqiao Airport station, ridership will be ample enough for the SMT to not only cover operation and maintenance costs, which it already does with its demonstration leg, but it will be able to generate significant revenue.
When the SMT in Shanghai begins to extend its line to South Shanghai Train Station, its goal is to limit the cost of future construction to approximately US$18 million per kilometer. They are confident about this since the German government, in 2006, put $125 million into guideway cost reduction development, which resulted in an all-concrete modular guideway design that is faster to build, has an 80-year life cycle, and is more than 30% less costly than what was used in Shanghai. In addition, new construction techniques were also developed that now put maglev at price parity with new high-speed rail construction, or even less.
The United States Federal Railroad Administration 2003 Draft Environmental Impact Statement for a proposed Baltimore-Washington Maglev project gives an estimated 2008 capital costs of US$4.361 billion for 39.1 miles (62.9 km), or US$111.5 million per mile (US$69.3 million per kilometer). The
Maryland Transit AdministrationThe Maryland Transit Administration is a state-operated mass transit administration in Maryland, and is part of the Maryland Department of Transportation. It is better known as MTA Maryland to avoid confusion with other cities' transit agencies who share the initials MTA. The MTA operates a...
(MTA) conducted their own Environmental Impact Statement, and put the pricetag at US$4.9 billion for construction, and $53 million a year for operations.
The proposed
Chuo ShinkansenThe is a planned maglev line connecting Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka, Japan. The only part of the line that exists is the Yamanashi test track, which is currently being extended from 18.4 km to 42.8 km. The line is proposed to connect Tokyo and Nagoya in the first stage in 40 minutes, and eventually...
maglev in Japan is estimated to cost approximately US$82 billion to build, with a route blasting long tunnels through mountains. A Tokaido maglev route replacing current Shinkansen would cost some 1/10 the cost, as no new tunnel blasting would be needed, but noise pollution issues would make it infeasible.
The only low-speed maglev (100 km/h (62.1 mph)) currently operational, the Japanese
Linimo, formally the is a magnetic levitation train line in Aichi, Japan, near the city of Nagoya. While primarily built to serve the Expo 2005 fair site, the line is still operating to serve the local community.Linimo is owned and operated by...
HSST, cost approximately US$100 million/km to build. Besides offering improved operation and maintenance costs over other transit systems, these low-speed maglevs provide ultra-high levels of operational reliability and introduce little noise and zero air pollution into
dense urban settings.
As maglev systems are deployed around the world, experts expect construction costs to drop as new construction methods are innovated along with
economies of scaleEconomies of scale, in microeconomics, refers to the cost advantages that an enterprise obtains due to expansion. There are factors that cause a producer’s average cost per unit to fall as the scale of output is increased. "Economies of scale" is a long run concept and refers to reductions in unit...
.
Records
The highest recorded speed of a Maglev train is 581 km/h (361 mph), achieved in Japan by the CJR's MLX01 superconducting maglev in 2003, 6 km/h (3.7 mph) faster than the conventional
TGVThe TGV is France's high-speed rail service, currently operated by SNCF Voyages, the long-distance rail branch of SNCF, the French national rail operator....
wheel-rail speed record. However, the operational and performance differences between these two very different technologies is far greater than a mere 6 km/h (3.7 mph) of speed. For example, the TGV record was achieved accelerating down a 72.4 km (45 mi) slight incline, requiring 13 minutes. It then took another 77.25 km (48 mi) for the TGV to stop, requiring a total distance of 149.65 km (93 mi) for the test. The MLX01 record, however, was achieved on the 18.4 km (11.4 mi) Yamanashi test track – technology, especially well suited for the TGV test. While it is claimed high-speed maglevs can actually operate commercially at these speeds while wheel-rail trains cannot, and do so without the burden and expense of extensive maintenance, no maglev or wheel-rail commercial operation has actually been attempted at these speeds over 500 kph.
History
- 1971 – West Germany – Prinzipfahrzeug – 90 km/h (55.9 mph)
- 1971 – West Germany – TR-02 (TSST
Toshiba Samsung Storage Technology Corporation is an international joint venture company of Toshiba and Samsung Electronics . Toshiba owns 51% of its stock, while Samsung owns the remaining 49%. The company specialises in optical disc drive manufacturing...
) – 164 km/h (101.9 mph)
- 1972 – Japan – ML100 – 60 km/h (37.3 mph) – (manned)
- 1973 – West Germany – TR04 – 250 km/h (155.3 mph) (manned)
- 1974 – West Germany – EET-01 – 230 km/h (142.9 mph) (unmanned)
- 1975 – West Germany – Komet – 401 km/h (249.2 mph) (by steam rocket propulsion, unmanned)
- 1978 – Japan – HSST-01 – 308 km/h (191.4 mph) (by supporting rockets propulsion, made in Nissan, unmanned)
- 1978 – Japan – HSST-02 – 110 km/h (68.4 mph) (manned)
- 1979-12-12 – Japan-ML-500R – 504 km/h (313.2 mph) (unmanned) It succeeds in operation over 500 km/h for the first time in the world.
- 1979-12-21 – Japan – ML-500R – 517 km/h (321.2 mph) (unmanned)
- 1987 – West Germany – TR-06 – 406 km/h (252.3 mph) (manned)
- 1987 – Japan – MLU001 – 401 km/h (249.2 mph) (manned)
- 1988 – West Germany – TR-06 – 413 km/h (256.6 mph) (manned)
- 1989 – West Germany – TR-07 – 436 km/h (270.9 mph) (manned)
- 1993 – Germany – TR-07 – 450 km/h (279.6 mph) (manned)
- 1994 – Japan – MLU002N – 431 km/h (267.8 mph) (unmanned)
- 1997 – Japan – MLX01 – 531 km/h (329.9 mph) (manned)
- 1997 – Japan – MLX01 – 550 km/h (341.8 mph) (unmanned)
- 1999 – Japan – MLX01 – 548 km/h (340.5 mph) (unmanned)
- 1999 – Japan – MLX01 – 552 km/h (343 mph) (manned/five formation). Guinness
Guinness World Records, known until 2000 as The Guinness Book of Records , is a reference book published annually, containing a collection of world records, both human achievements and the extremes of the natural world...
authorization.
- 2003 – China – Transrapid SMT (built in Germany) – 501 km/h (311.3 mph) (manned/three formation)
- 2003 – Japan – MLX01 – 581 km/h (361 mph) (manned/three formation). Guinness authorization.
San Diego, USA
General AtomicsGeneral Atomics is a nuclear physics and defense contractor headquartered in San Diego, California. General Atomics’ research into fission and fusion matured into competencies in related technologies, allowing the company to expand into other fields of research...
has a 120-meter test facility in San Diego, which is being used as the basis of Union Pacific's 8 km (5 mi) freight shuttle in Los Angeles. The technology is "passive" (or "permanent"), using permanent magnets in a halbach array for lift, and requiring no electromagnets for either levitation or propulsion. General Atomics has received US$90 million in research funding from the federal government. They are also looking to apply their technology to high-speed passenger services.
Emsland, Germany
Transrapid, a German maglev company, has a test track in
EmslandLandkreis Emsland is a district in Lower Saxony, Germany named after the river Ems. It is bounded by the districts of Leer, Cloppenburg and Osnabrück, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia , the district of Bentheim and the Netherlands .- History :For a long time the region of the Emsland was...
with a total length of 31.5 km (19.6 mi). The single track line runs between
DörpenSamtgemeinde Dörpen is a Samtgemeinde in the district Emsland in Lower Saxony, Germany.Following towns are situated in Dörpen:...
and
LathenSamtgemeinde Lathen is a Samtgemeinde in the district Emsland in Lower Saxony, Germany.Following towns are situated in Lathen:...
with turning loops at each end. The trains regularly run at up to 420 km/h (261 mph). The construction of the test facility began in 1980 and finished in 1984.
JR-Maglev, Japan
Japan has a demonstration line in
Yamanashi prefectureis a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of the island of Honshū. The capital is the city of Kōfu.-Pre-history to the 14th century:People have been living in the Yamanashi area for about 30,000 years...
where test trains JR-Maglev MLX01 have reached 581 km/h (361 mph), slightly faster than any wheeled trains. (The current
TGVThe TGV is France's high-speed rail service, currently operated by SNCF Voyages, the long-distance rail branch of SNCF, the French national rail operator....
speed record is 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph).)
These trains use
superconducting magnetA superconducting magnet is an electromagnet made from coils of superconducting wire. They must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures during operation. In its superconducting state the wire can conduct much larger electric currents than ordinary wire, creating intense magnetic fields...
s which allow for a larger gap, and repulsive-type electrodynamic suspension (EDS). In comparison Transrapid uses conventional electromagnets and attractive-type electromagnetic suspension (EMS). These "Superconducting Maglev Shinkansen", developed by the
Central Japan Railway CompanyThe is the main railway company operating in the Chūbu region of central Japan. It is officially abbreviated in English as JR Central and in Japanese as . Its headquarters are located in the JR Central Towers in Nakamura-ku, Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture.The company's operational hub is Nagoya Station...
(JR Central) and
Kawasaki Heavy Industriesis an international corporation based in Japan. It has headquarters in both Chūō-ku, Kobe and Minato, Tokyo.The company is named after its founder Shōzō Kawasaki and has no connection with the city of Kawasaki, Kanagawa....
, are currently the fastest trains in the world, achieving a record speed of 581 km/h (361 mph) on 2 December 2003.
FTA's UMTD program
In the US, the
Federal Transit AdministrationThe Federal Transit Administration is an agency within the United States Department of Transportation that provides financial and technical assistance to local public transit systems. The FTA is one of ten modal administrations within the DOT...
(FTA) Urban Maglev Technology Demonstration program has funded the design of several low-speed urban maglev demonstration projects. It has assessed HSST for the
Maryland Department of TransportationThe Maryland Department of Transportation is a government agency in the U.S. state of Maryland. MDOT is overseen by Transportation Secretary Beverley K. Swaim-Staley, who replaced John Porcari in 2009 upon the latter's appointment as Deputy Secretary of the United States Department of...
and maglev technology for the Colorado Department of Transportation. The FTA has also funded work by
General AtomicsGeneral Atomics is a nuclear physics and defense contractor headquartered in San Diego, California. General Atomics’ research into fission and fusion matured into competencies in related technologies, allowing the company to expand into other fields of research...
at
California University of PennsylvaniaCalifornia University of Pennsylvania is a public university located in California, Pennsylvania, USA. Founded in 1852, it is a member of the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education. Cal U's enrollment is approximately 9,400.The main campus consists of about 38 buildings situated on 92 acres...
to demonstrate new maglev designs, the MagneMotion M3 and of the Maglev2000 of Florida superconducting EDS system. Other US urban maglev demonstration projects of note are the LEVX in Washington State and the Massachusetts-based Magplane.
Southwest Jiaotong University, China
On 31 December 2000, the first crewed high-temperature superconducting maglev was tested successfully at
Southwest Jiaotong UniversitySouthwest Jiaotong University is one of the oldest universities in mainland China.-About SWJTU:The university was originally founded at Shanhaiguan, Hebei in 1896, and it is currently located in Chengdu, Sichuan, a major city in the southwest part of the country...
, Chengdu, China. This system is based on the principle that bulk high-temperature superconductors can be levitated or suspended stably above or below a permanent magnet. The load was over 530 kg (1,168.4 lb) and the levitation gap over 20 mm (0.78740157480315 in). The system uses
liquid nitrogenLiquid nitrogen is nitrogen in a liquid state at a very low temperature. It is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air. Liquid nitrogen is a colourless clear liquid with density of 0.807 g/mL at its boiling point and a dielectric constant of 1.4...
, which is very cheap, to cool the superconductor.
Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan)
The commercial
automatedAutomation is the use of control systems and information technologies to reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and services. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization...
"Urban Maglev" system commenced operation in March 2005 in Aichi, Japan. This is the nine-station 9 km (5.6 mi) long Tobu-kyuryo Line, otherwise known as the
Linimo, formally the is a magnetic levitation train line in Aichi, Japan, near the city of Nagoya. While primarily built to serve the Expo 2005 fair site, the line is still operating to serve the local community.Linimo is owned and operated by...
. The line has a minimum operating radius of 75 m (246.1 ft) and a maximum gradient of 6%. The linear-motor magnetic-levitated train has a top speed of 100 km/h (62.1 mph). More than 10 million passengers used this "urban maglev" line in its first three months of operation. At 100 km/h (62.1 mph), this urban transit technology is sufficiently fast enough for frequent stops, has little or no noise impact on surrounding communities, can fit into tight turn radii rights of way, and will operate reliably during most inclement weather conditions. The trains were designed by the Chubu HSST Development Corporation, which also operates a test track in Nagoya.
Shanghai Maglev Train
In January 2001, the Chinese signed an agreement with the German maglev consortium
TransrapidTransrapid is a German high-speed monorail train using magnetic levitation. Based on a patent from 1934, planning of the Transrapid system started in 1969. The test facility for the system in Emsland, Germany was completed in 1987...
to build an EMS high-speed maglev line to link Pudong International Airport with Longyang Road Metro station on the eastern edge of Shanghai. This
Shanghai Maglev TrainThe Shanghai Maglev Train or Shanghai Transrapid is a magnetic levitation train, or maglev line that operates in Shanghai, China. It is the first commercially operated high-speed magnetic levitation line in the world...
demonstration line, or Initial Operating Segment (IOS), has been in commercial operations since April 2004 and now operates 115 (up from 110 daily trips in 2010) daily trips that traverse the 30 km (18.6 mi) between the two stations in just 7 minutes, achieving a top speed of 431 km/h (267.8 mph), averaging 266 km/h (165.3 mph). On a 12 November 2003 system commissioning test run, the Shanghai maglev achieved a speed of 501 km/h (311.3 mph), which is its designed top cruising speed for longer intercity routes. Unlike the old Birmingham maglev technology, the Shanghai maglev is extremely fast and comes with on time – to the second – reliability of greater than 99.97%.(
7-minute real time video of the maglev reaching 431 k/hr in only 3 minutes)
Plans to extend the line to South Shanghai Train Station and Honqiao Airport on the western edge of Shanghai are presently on hold, awaiting government approval.
Daejeon, South Korea
The first maglev utilizing electromagnetic suspension opened to public was HML-03, which was made by Hyundai Heavy Industries, for Daejeon Expo in 1993 after five years of research and manufacturing two prototypes; HML-01 and HML-02. Research for urban maglev using electromagnetic suspension began in 1994 by the government. The first urban maglev opened to public was UTM-02 in Daejeon on 21 April 2008 after 14 years of development and building one prototype; UTM-01. The urban maglev runs on a 1 km (0.621372736649807 mi) track between Expo Park and National Science Museum. Meanwhile UTM-02 remarked an innovation by conducting the world's first ever maglev simulation. However UTM-02 is still the second prototype of a final model. The final UTM model of Rotem's urban maglev, UTM-03, is scheduled to debut at the end of 2012 in Incheon's Yeongjong island where Incheon International Airport is located.
Old Dominion University
Track of less than a mile in length has been constructed at
Old Dominion UniversityOld Dominion University is a state university located in Norfolk, Virginia, United States, and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools...
in
Norfolk, VirginiaNorfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. With a population of 242,803 as of the 2010 Census, it is Virginia's second-largest city behind neighboring Virginia Beach....
, USA. Although the system was initially built by AMT, problems caused the company to abandon the project and turn it over to the University. This system uses a "smart train, dumb track" design in which most of the sensors, magnets, and computation reside on the train rather than the track. This system will cost less to build per mile than existing systems. The US$14 million originally planned did not allow for completion. The system is currently not operational, but research has proved useful. In October 2006, the research team performed an unscheduled test of the car that went smoothly. The whole system, unfortunately, was removed from the power grid for nearby construction. In February 2009, the team was able to retest the sled, or bogie, and was again successful despite power outages on campus. Further testing is planned, increasing both speed and distance. Meanwhile, ODU has partnered with a Massachusetts-based company to test another maglev train on its campus. MagneMotion Inc. is expected to bring its prototype maglev vehicle, which is about the size of a van, to the campus to test in early 2010.
Some urban legends regarding the completion of the Maglev have started to accumulate on the campus. The most prominent one is that of the three engineering students or more commonly known as the "Great Three". The legend goes, three engineering students, each belonging to their respected discipline (Mechanical,Chemical and Electrical) will have an epiphany. This epiphany is said to reveal the secret to the completion of the Maglev. Though skeptics are great in number, many students hold true that this prophecy will one day come true.
AMT Test Track – Powder Springs, Georgia
The same principle is involved in the construction of a second prototype system in Powder Springs, Georgia, USA, by
American Maglev Technology, Inc.
Applied Levitation/Fastransit Test Track – Santa Barbara, California
Applied Levitation, Inc. has built a levitating prototype on a short indoor track, and is now planning a quarter-mile outdoor track, with switches, in or near Santa Barbara.
Beijing S1 Line
The Beijing municipal government is building China's first low-speed maglev line using technology developed by Defense Technology University. This is the 10.2 km (6.3 mi) long S1-West commuter rail line, which, together with seven other conventional lines, saw construction begin on 28 Feb. 2011. The top speed will be 105 km/h (65.2 mph). It is scheduled to be completed in two years.
Proposed systems
Many maglev systems have been proposed in various nations of North America, Asia, and Europe. Many are still in the early planning stages, or even mere speculation, as with the
transatlantic tunnelA transatlantic tunnel is a theoretical tunnel which would span the Atlantic Ocean between North America and Europe and would carry mass transit of some type—trains are envisioned in most proposals.Using advanced technologies, speeds of are envisaged....
. But a few of the following examples have progressed beyond that point.
Sydney-Illawarra Maglev Proposal
There is a current proposal for a Maglev route between Sydney and Wollongong.
The proposal came to prominence in the mid-1990s. The Sydney – Wollongong commuter corridor is the largest in Australia, with upwards of 20,000 people commuting from the Illawarra to Sydney for work each day. Current trains crawl along the dated Illawarra line, between the cliff face of the
Illawarra escarpmentThe Illawarra Escarpment is the fold created cliffs and plateau eroded outcrop mountain range west of the Illawarra coastal plain south of Sydney, Australia, enclosing the region known as the Illawarra which stretches from Stanwell Park in the north to Kiama, Gerringong and the Shoalhaven river in...
and the Pacific Ocean, with travel times about two hours between Wollongong Station and Central. The proposed Maglev would cut travel times to 20 minutes.
Melbourne Maglev Proposal
In late 2008, a proposal was put forward to the
Government of VictoriaThe Government of Victoria, under the Constitution of Australia, ceded certain legislative and judicial powers to the Commonwealth, but retained complete independence in all other areas...
to build a privately funded and operated Maglev line to service the Greater Melbourne metropolitan area in response to the
Eddington Transport ReportThe "" or Eddington Transport Report or Sir Rod Eddington Plan was a major transport study undertaken in Victoria, Australia, by Sir Rod Eddington in 2007 concentrating on solutions for transportation in Melbourne with a primary focus on reducing congestion of road transport in Victoria.The report...
which neglected to investigate above ground transport options. The Maglev would service a population of over 4 million and the proposal was costed at A$8 billion.
However despite relentless road congestion and the highest roadspace per capita Australia, the government quickly dismissed the proposal in favour of road expansion including an A$8.5 billion road tunnel, $6 billion extension of the Eastlink to the Western Ring Road and a $700 million Frankston Bypass.
United Kingdom
London – Glasgow: A maglev line was recently proposed in the United Kingdom from London to
GlasgowGlasgow is the largest city in Scotland and third most populous in the United Kingdom. The city is situated on the River Clyde in the country's west central lowlands...
with several route options through the Midlands, Northwest and Northeast of England and was reported to be under favourable consideration by the government. But the technology was rejected for future planning in the Government White Paper
Delivering a Sustainable Railway published on 24 July 2007. Another high speed link is being planned between Glasgow and Edinburgh but there is no settled technology for it.
Iran
IranIran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
and a German company have reached an agreement on using maglev trains to link the cities of
TehranTehran , sometimes spelled Teheran, is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. With an estimated population of 8,429,807; it is also Iran's largest urban area and city, one of the largest cities in Western Asia, and is the world's 19th largest city.In the 20th century, Tehran was subject to...
and
MashhadMashhad , is the second largest city in Iran and one of the holiest cities in the Shia Muslim world. It is also the only major Iranian city with an Arabic name. It is located east of Tehran, at the center of the Razavi Khorasan Province close to the borders of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Its...
. The agreement was signed at the Mashhad International Fair site between Iranian Ministry of Roads and Transportation and the German company. Maglev trains can reduce the 900 km (559.2 mi) travel time between Tehran and Mashhad to about 2.5 hours. Munich-based Schlegel Consulting Engineers said they had signed the contract with the Iranian ministry of transport and the governor of Mashad. "We have been mandated to lead a German consortium in this project," a spokesman said. "We are in a preparatory phase." The next step will be assemble a consortium, a process that is expected to take place "in the coming months," the spokesman said. The project could be worth between 10 billion and 12 billion euros, the Schlegel spokesman said. Siemens and ThyssenKrupp, the developers of a high-speed maglev train, called the Transrapid, both said they were unaware of the proposal. The Schlegel spokesman said Siemens and ThyssenKrupp were currently "not involved." in the consortium
Japan
Tokyo – Nagoya – Osaka
The plan for the
Chuo ShinkansenThe is a planned maglev line connecting Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka, Japan. The only part of the line that exists is the Yamanashi test track, which is currently being extended from 18.4 km to 42.8 km. The line is proposed to connect Tokyo and Nagoya in the first stage in 40 minutes, and eventually...
bullet train system was finalized based on the Law for Construction of Countrywide Shinkansen. The Linear Chuo Shinkansen Project aims to realize this plan using the Superconductive Magnetically Levitated Train, which connects Tokyo and
Osakais a city in the Kansai region of Japan's main island of Honshu, a designated city under the Local Autonomy Law, the capital city of Osaka Prefecture and also the biggest part of Keihanshin area, which is represented by three major cities of Japan, Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe...
by way of Nagoya, the capital city of
Aichiis a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region. The region of Aichi is also known as the Tōkai region. The capital is Nagoya. It is the focus of the Chūkyō Metropolitan Area.- History :...
, in approximately one hour at a speed of 500 km/h (310.7 mph). In April 2007, JR Central President Masayuki Matsumoto said that JR Central aims to begin commercial maglev service between Tokyo and Nagoya in the year 2025 with the full track between Tokyo and Osaka finalized in 2045.
Venezuela
Caracas – La Guaira A maglev train (
TELMAGVThe TELMAGV , is an ongoing research project which was born in the Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas in 1967, and later continued by the Universidad de los Andes...
) has been proposed to connect the capital city
CaracasCaracas , officially Santiago de León de Caracas, is the capital and largest city of Venezuela; natives or residents are known as Caraquenians in English . It is located in the northern part of the country, following the contours of the narrow Caracas Valley on the Venezuelan coastal mountain range...
to the main port town of
La GuairaLa Guaira is the capital city of the Venezuelan state of Vargas and the country's chief port. It was founded in 1577 as an outlet for Caracas, to the southeast. The town and the port were badly damaged during the December 1999 floods and mudslides that affected much of the region...
and
Simón Bolívar International AirportSimón Bolívar International Airport of Maiquetia is an international airport located in Maiquetía, Venezuela, about 13 miles from downtown Caracas....
. No budget has been allocated, pending definition of the route, although a route of six to nine kilometers (three to six miles) has been suggested. The proposal envisages that, initially, a full-sized prototype train would be built with about 1 km (0.621372736649807 mi) of test track.
In proposing a maglev system, its improved life and performance over mechanical engines were cited as important factors, as well as improving comfort, safety, economics and environmental impact over conventional rail.
China
Shanghai – HangzhouChina is planning to extend the existing
Shanghai Maglev TrainThe Shanghai Maglev Train or Shanghai Transrapid is a magnetic levitation train, or maglev line that operates in Shanghai, China. It is the first commercially operated high-speed magnetic levitation line in the world...
, initially by some 35 kilometers to
Shanghai Hongqiao AirportShanghai Hongqiao International Airport is the main domestic airport serving Shanghai, China, with limited international flights. It is located near the town of Hongqiao in Changning District, 13 km west of downtown, and is closer to the city center than Pudong Airport, Shanghai's main...
and then 200 kilometers to the city of Hangzhou (
Shanghai-Hangzhou Maglev TrainShanghai-Hangzhou Maglev Train is a proposed maglev train line from Shanghai to Hangzhou, to be built by Germany's Transrapid consortium . Originally planned to be ready for Expo 2010, the controversial project was repeatedly delayed, with final approval being granted on August 18, 2008...
). If built, this would be the first
inter-cityInter-city rail services are express passenger train services that cover longer distances than commuter or regional trains.There is no precise definition of inter-city rail. Its meaning may vary from country to country...
maglev rail line in commercial service.
The project has been controversial and repeatedly delayed. In May 2007 the project was suspended by officials, reportedly due to public concerns about radiation from the maglev system. In January and February 2008 hundreds of residents demonstrated in downtown Shanghai against the line being built too close to their homes, citing concerns about sickness due to exposure to the strong magnetic field, noise, pollution and devaluation of property near to the lines. Final approval to build the line was granted on 18 August 2008. Originally scheduled to be ready by
Expo 2010Expo 2010, officially Expo 2010 Shanghai China was held on both banks of the Huangpu River in the city of Shanghai, China, from May 1 to October 31, 2010. It was a major World Expo in the tradition of international fairs and expositions, the first since 1992...
, current plans call for construction to start in 2010 for completion by 2014. The Shanghai municipal government has considered multiple options, including building the line underground to allay the public's fear of electromagnetic pollution. This same report states that the final decision has to be approved by the National Development and Reform Commission.
The Shanghai municipal government may also build a factory in Nanhui district to produce low-speed maglev trains for urban use.
India
Mumbai – DelhiA maglev line project was presented to the Indian railway minister (Mamta Banerjee) by an American company. A line was proposed to serve between the cities of
MumbaiMumbai , formerly known as Bombay in English, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India, and the fourth most populous city in the world, with a total metropolitan area population of approximately 20.5 million...
and
DelhiDelhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
, the Prime Minister
Manmohan SinghManmohan Singh is the 13th and current Prime Minister of India. He is the only Prime Minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to return to power after completing a full five-year term. A Sikh, he is the first non-Hindu to occupy the office. Singh is also the 7th Prime Minister belonging to the Indian...
said that if the line project is successful the Indian government would build lines between other cities and also between Mumbai Central and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport.
The State of Maharashtra has also approved a feasibility study for a Maglev train between Mumbai (the commercial capital of India as well as the State government capital) and Nagpur (the second State capital) about 1000 km (621.4 mi) away. It plans to connect the regions of Mumbai and Pune with Nagpur via less developed hinterland (via Ahmednagar, Beed, Latur, Nanded and Yavatmal).
Kerala – Kochi MetroA proposal is in place to construct the upcoming Kochi Metro project using maglev technology
Puerto Rico
San JuanSan Juan , officially Municipio de la Ciudad Capital San Juan Bautista , is the capital and most populous municipality in Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 395,326 making it the 46th-largest city under the jurisdiction of...
– Caguas: A 16.7-mile (26.8 km) maglev project has been proposed linking
Tren UrbanoThe Tren Urbano — or Urban Train in English — is a fully automated rapid transit that serves the metropolitan area of San Juan, which includes the municipalities of San Juan, Bayamón and Guaynabo. It is electrified by third rail at 750 V DC...
's Cupey Station in San Juan with two proposed stations to be built in the city of Caguas, south of San Juan. The maglev line would run along Highway
PR-52, connecting both cities. According to American Maglev Technology (AMT), which is the company in charge of the construction of this train, the cost of the project is approximately US$380 million.
United States
Union Pacific Freight Conveyor: Plans are under way by American rail road operator Union Pacific to build a 7.9 km (4.9 mi) container shuttle between the ports of Los Angeles and
Long BeachLong Beach is a city situated in Los Angeles County in Southern California, on the Pacific coast of the United States. The city is the 36th-largest city in the nation and the seventh-largest in California. As of 2010, its population was 462,257...
, with UP's Intermodal Container Transfer Facility. The system would be based on "passive" ck – 1/8 the distance needed fed to freight transfer as no power is needed on-board, simply a chassis which glides to its destination. The system is being designed by General Atomics.
California-Nevada Interstate MaglevThe California-Nevada Interstate Maglev project is proposing the construction of a Maglev train line from Las Vegas, Nevada to Anaheim, California. One segment would run from Las Vegas to Primm, Nevada, with proposed service to the Las Vegas area's forthcoming Ivanpah Valley Airport. The top speed...
: High-speed maglev lines between major cities of southern California and
Las VegasLas Vegas is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Nevada and is also the county seat of Clark County, Nevada. Las Vegas is an internationally renowned major resort city for gambling, shopping, and fine dining. The city bills itself as The Entertainment Capital of the World, and is famous...
are also being studied via the California-Nevada Interstate Maglev Project. This plan was originally supposed to be part of an I-5 or I-15 expansion plan, but the federal government has ruled it must be separated from interstate public work projects.
Since the federal government decision, private groups from Nevada have proposed a line running from Las Vegas to Los Angeles with stops in
Primm, NevadaPrimm is a tiny community in Clark County, Nevada, United States, primarily notable for its position straddling Interstate 15 where it crosses the border between California and Nevada...
;
Baker, CaliforniaBaker is a census-designated place located in San Bernardino County, California, USA. As of the 2010 census, the town had a total population of 735.Baker was founded as a station on the Tonopah and Tidewater Railroad in 1908,...
; and points throughout
San Bernardino CountySan Bernardino County is a county in the U.S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,035,210, up from 1,709,434 as of the 2000 census...
into Los Angeles. Southern California politicians have not been receptive to these proposals; many are concerned that a high speed rail line out of state would drive out dollars that would be spent in state "on a rail" to Nevada.
Baltimore – Washington D.C. Maglev: A 64 km (39.8 mi) project has been proposed linking Camden Yards in Baltimore and Baltimore-Washington International (BWI) Airport to Union Station in Washington, D.C. It is said to be in demand for the area due to its current traffic/congestion problems.
The Pennsylvania Project: The Pennsylvania High-Speed Maglev Project corridor extends from the
Pittsburgh International AirportPittsburgh International Airport , formerly Greater Pittsburgh Airport, Greater Pittsburgh International Airport and commonly referred to as Pittsburgh International, is a joint civil–military international airport located in the Pittsburgh suburb of Findlay Township, approximately west of...
to
GreensburgGreensburg is a city in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, United States, and a part of the Pittsburgh Metro Area. The city is named after Nathanael Greene, a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War...
, with intermediate stops in Downtown Pittsburgh and
MonroevilleMonroeville is a home rule municipality in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, United States. Located about east of the city of Pittsburgh, Monroeville is a bustling suburb with mixed residential and commercial developments...
. This initial project will serve a population of approximately 2.4 million people in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area. The Baltimore proposal is competing with the Pittsburgh proposal for a US$90 million federal grant. The purpose of the project is to see if the maglev system can function properly in a U.S. city environment.
San Diego-Imperial County airport: In 2006 San Diego commissioned a study for a maglev line to a proposed airport located in
Imperial CountyImperial County Airport , also known as Boley Field, is a public airport located partially in the city of Imperial and partially in an unincorporated area in Imperial County, California, United States. The airport is located 0.94 miles south of the central business district of Imperial. The...
. SANDAG says that the concept would be an "airports without terminals", allowing passengers to check in at a terminal in San Diego ("satellite terminals") and take the maglev to Imperial airport and board the airplane there as if they went directly through the terminal in the Imperial location. In addition, the maglev would have the potential to carry high priority freight. Further studies have been requested although no funding has yet been agreed.
Atlanta – Chattanooga: The proposed maglev route would run from
Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International AirportHartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport , known locally as Atlanta Airport, Hartsfield Airport, and Hartsfield–Jackson, is located seven miles south of the central business district of Atlanta, Georgia, United States...
, run through Atlanta, continue to the northern suburbs of Atlanta, and possibly even extend to
Chattanooga, TennesseeChattanooga is the fourth-largest city in the US state of Tennessee , with a population of 169,887. It is the seat of Hamilton County...
. If built, the maglev line would rival Atlanta's current subway system, the
Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit AuthorityThe Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority or MARTA is the principal rapid-transit system in the Atlanta metropolitan area and the ninth-largest in the United States. Formed in 1971 as strictly a bus system, MARTA operates a network of bus routes linked to a rapid transit system consisting...
(MARTA), the rail system of which includes a major branch running from downtown Atlanta to Hartsfield-Jackson airport.
Germany
On 25 September 2007,
BavariaBavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
announced it would build a high-speed maglev-rail service from the city of
MunichMunich The city's motto is "" . Before 2006, it was "Weltstadt mit Herz" . Its native name, , is derived from the Old High German Munichen, meaning "by the monks' place". The city's name derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who founded the city; hence the monk depicted on the city's coat...
to its
airportMunich Airport , is located northeast of Munich, Germany, and is a hub for Lufthansa and Star Alliance partner airlines. It lies nearby the old city of Freising and is named in memory of politician Franz Josef Strauss...
. The Bavarian government signed contracts with
Deutsche BahnDeutsche Bahn AG is the German national railway company, a private joint stock company . Headquartered in Berlin, it came into existence in 1994 as the successor to the former state railways of Germany, the Deutsche Bundesbahn of West Germany and the Deutsche Reichsbahn of East Germany...
and Transrapid with
SiemensSiemens may refer toSiemens, a German family name carried by generations of telecommunications industrialists, including:* Werner von Siemens , inventor, founder of Siemens AG...
and
ThyssenKruppThyssenKrupp AG is a German multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Duisburg Essen, Germany. The corporation consists of 670 companies worldwide. While ThyssenKrupp is one of the world's largest steel producers, the company also provides components and systems for the automotive...
for the 1.85 billion euro project.
On 27 March 2008, the
German Transport ministerThe Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development is a Ministry of Germany.It was created in 1998 by merger of the former Federal Ministry of Transport and the Federal Ministry of Regional Planning, Building and Urban Development, both established in 1949...
announced the project had been cancelled due to rising costs associated with constructing the track. A new estimate put the project between 3.2 and 3.4 billion euros.
Switzerland
SwissRapide: The SwissRapide AG together with the SwissRapide Consortium is planning and developing the first Maglev monorail system for intercity traffic between major cities in the country. The SwissRapide Express is an innovative solution for the coming transportation challenges in Switzerland. As pioneer for large infrastructure projects, SwissRapide is to be financed to 100% by private investors.
In the long-term, the SwissRapide Express is to connect the major cities north of the Alps between
GenevaGeneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
and
St. GallenSt. Gallen is the capital of the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland. It evolved from the hermitage of Saint Gall, founded in the 7th century. Today, it is a large urban agglomeration and represents the center of eastern Switzerland. The town mainly relies on the service sector for its economic...
, including
LucerneLucerne is a city in north-central Switzerland, in the German-speaking portion of that country. Lucerne is the capital of the Canton of Lucerne and the capital of the district of the same name. With a population of about 76,200 people, Lucerne is the most populous city in Central Switzerland, and...
and
BaselBasel or Basle In the national languages of Switzerland the city is also known as Bâle , Basilea and Basilea is Switzerland's third most populous city with about 166,000 inhabitants. Located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany...
. The first projects currently in planning are
BerneThe city of Bern or Berne is the Bundesstadt of Switzerland, and, with a population of , the fourth most populous city in Switzerland. The Bern agglomeration, which includes 43 municipalities, has a population of 349,000. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000...
–
ZurichZurich is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is located in central Switzerland at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich...
,
LausanneLausanne is a city in Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland, and is the capital of the canton of Vaud. The seat of the district of Lausanne, the city is situated on the shores of Lake Geneva . It faces the French town of Évian-les-Bains, with the Jura mountains to its north-west...
– Geneva as well as Zurich –
WinterthurWinterthur is a city in the canton of Zurich in northern Switzerland. It has the country's sixth largest population with an estimate of more than 100,000 people. In the local dialect and by its inhabitants, it is usually abbreviated to Winti...
. The first line (Lausanne – Geneva or Zurich – Winterthur) could go into service as early as 2020.
SwissmetroSwissmetro was a futuristic Swiss national transportation project using vactrain technology that went into liquidation in November 2009 because of a lack of support. Based on high-speed maglev trains travelling in low-pressure tunnels, the speeds would have been about 500 kilometres per hour.Such...
: An earlier project, Swissmetro, has previously attempted to provide a solution for the transportation challenges in the country. The Swissmetro AG had the technically challenging vision of constructing an underground Maglev rail system, which would have been in a partial vacuum in order to reduce air friction at high speeds. As with SwissRapide, Swissmetro envisioned connecting the major cities in Switzerland with one another. In 2011, Swissmetro AG was dissolved and the IPRs from the organisation were passed onto the EPFL in Lausanne.
Indonesia
There are plans to build a 683 km (424.4 mi) long maglev rail service between Jakarta and Surabaya. This maglev will have 7 stations including Semarang.
Significant incidents
There have been two incidents involving fires. The Japanese test train in Miyazaki, MLU002, was completely consumed in a fire in 1991. As a result of the fire, political opposition in Japan claimed maglev was a waste of public money.
On 11 August 2006, a fire broke out on the commercial Shanghai Transrapid shortly after arriving at the Longyang terminal. People were quickly evacuated without incident before the vehicle was moved down line about 1 kilometer to avoid smoke filling the station. NAMTI officials toured the SMT maintenance facility in November 2010 and learned that the cause of the battery fire was "thermal runaway" in one of the battery trays. As a result of these findings, SMT secured a new battery vendor, installed new temperature sensors and insulators, and redesigned the battery trays to prevent a re-occurrence of the event. SMT officials confirm that the system has performed flawlessly since making the changes.
On 22 September 2006, a
Transrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicleThe Lathen train collision occurred on 22 September 2006 when a Transrapid magnetic levitation train collided with a maintenance vehicle near Lathen, Germany, killing 23 people...
on a test/publicity run in Lathen (Lower Saxony / north-western Germany). Twenty-three people were killed and ten were injured; these were the first fatalities resulting from an accident on a Maglev system. The accident was caused by human error; charges were brought against three Transrapid employees after a year-long investigation.
See also
- Bombardier Advanced Rapid Transit
Advanced Rapid Transit or ART is the current name given to a rapid transit system manufactured by Bombardier Transportation. The original versions look like small subway cars that typically run in two-, four- or six-car trains, but the latest versions are more streamlined two-car articulated...
– Transit systems using Linear induction motorA linear induction motor is an AC asynchronous linear motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but which has been designed to directly produce motion in a straight line....
s
- Ground effect train
A ground effect train is an alternative to a magnetic levitation train. In both cases the object is to prevent the vehicle from making contact with the ground...
- Land speed record for rail vehicles
- Launch loop
A launch loop or Lofstrom loop is a proposed system for launching objects into space orbit using a moving cable-like system attached to the earth at two ends and suspended above the atmosphere in the middle...
would be a maglev system for launching to orbit or escape velocity
- Mass driver
A mass driver or electromagnetic catapult is a proposed method of non-rocket spacelaunch which would use a linear motor to accelerate and catapult payloads up to high speeds. All existing and contemplated mass drivers use coils of wire energized by electricity to make electromagnets. Sequential...
- Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line
- Oleg Tozoni
Dr. Oleg V. Tozoni is a scientist and a specialist in the field of Electro-dynamic and Electrical Engineering. Since 1964 through 1988 Dr. Tozoni was the Head of the Department of Electrodynamics at the Cybernetics Institute of the Academy of Science, USSR. After immigration to the USA in 1989, Dr...
is working on a published non linearly stabilised maglev design
- StarTram
StarTram is a proposal for a maglev space launch system. The initial Generation 1 facility would be cargo only, launching from a mountain peak at 3 km to 7 km altitude with an evacuated tube staying at local surface level, raising ≈150,000 tons to orbit annually...
– a maglev launch system
External links