Lobbying in the United States
Encyclopedia
Lobbying
Lobbying
Lobbying is the act of attempting to influence decisions made by officials in the government, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies. Lobbying is done by various people or groups, from private-sector individuals or corporations, fellow legislators or government officials, or...

 in the United States
targets the United States Senate
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...

, the United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...

, and state legislatures. Lobbyists may also represent their clients' or organizations' interests in dealings with federal, state, or local executive branch agencies or the court
Court
A court is a form of tribunal, often a governmental institution, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between parties and carry out the administration of justice in civil, criminal, and administrative matters in accordance with the rule of law...

s. Lobby groups and their members sometimes also write legislation and whip
Whip (politics)
A whip is an official in a political party whose primary purpose is to ensure party discipline in a legislature. Whips are a party's "enforcers", who typically offer inducements and threaten punishments for party members to ensure that they vote according to the official party policy...

 bills. As of 2007 there are over 17,000 federal lobbyists based in Washington, DC.

Summary

Lobbyists use their time both with legislators, to explain the issues of the organizations which they represent, and with their clients to explain the obstacles elected officials face when dealing with these issues. Many of these lobbyists are employed by lobbying firms or by law firms, which retain clients outside lobbying, other lobbyists are employed directly by advocacy group
Advocacy group
Advocacy groups use various forms of advocacy to influence public opinion and/or policy; they have played and continue to play an important part in the development of political and social systems...

s, trade association
Trade association
A trade association, also known as an industry trade group, business association or sector association, is an organization founded and funded by businesses that operate in a specific industry...

s, companies, and state and local governments. In 2007 there were over 17,000 federal lobbyists based in Washington, DC.

Lobbying activities are also performed at the state level, and lobbyists try to influence legislation in the state legislatures in each of the 50 states. At the local municipal level, some lobbying activities occur with city council members and county commissioners, especially in the larger cities and more populous counties.

Many local municipalities are requiring legislative agents register as lobbyists to represent the interests of clients to local city council members such as in the swing state of Ohio cities such as Columbus and Cincinnati. Local lobbyists can be asked to represent a variety of organizations including charitable non-profits such as 501(c)(3) tax-exempt corporations. Many lobbyists represent non-profits pro-bono for issues in which they are personally interested. Pro bono publico clients offer activities to meet and socialize with local legislators on neutral territory like fundraisers and awards ceremonies.

A number of reforms since 1995 have increased the level of regulation and required disclosure.

History

The ability of individuals, groups, and corporations to lobby the government is protected by the right to petition
Right to petition
The right to petition government for redress of grievances is the right to make a complaint to, or seek the assistance of, one's government, without fear of punishment or reprisals.-United States:...

 near the start of the Gilded Age
Gilded Age
In United States history, the Gilded Age refers to the era of rapid economic and population growth in the United States during the post–Civil War and post-Reconstruction eras of the late 19th century. The term "Gilded Age" was coined by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner in their book The Gilded...

. The most influential lobbies wanted railroad subsidies and a tariff on wool. At the same time in the Reconstruction South, lobbying was a high intensity activity near the state legislatures, especially regarding railroad subsidies.

In the Progressive Era
Progressive Era
The Progressive Era in the United States was a period of social activism and political reform that flourished from the 1890s to the 1920s. One main goal of the Progressive movement was purification of government, as Progressives tried to eliminate corruption by exposing and undercutting political...

 from the 1880s to the 1920s reformers frequently attacked lobbyists as corrupting politics.

In 1953, in a suit involving a congressional resolution authorizing a committee to investigate "all lobbying activities intended to influence, encourage, promote, or retard legislation," the Supreme Court narrowly construed "lobbying activities" to mean only "direct" lobbying (which the Court described as "representations made directly to the Congress, its members, or its committees"), and rejected a broader interpretation of "lobbying" out of First Amendment concerns. The Supreme Court thereby affirmed the earlier decision of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.

Prior to the 1980s lawmakers rarely became lobbyists as the profession was generally considered 'tainted' and 'unworthy' for once-elected officials such as themselves; in addition lobbying firms and trade groups were leery of hiring former members of Congress because they were reputed to be 'lazy as lobbyists and unwilling to ask former colleagues for favors'. New higher salaries, increasing demand and a greater turnover
Turnover (employment)
In a human resources context, turnover or staff turnover or labour turnover is the rate at which an employer gains and loses employees. Simple ways to describe it are "how long employees tend to stay" or "the rate of traffic through the revolving door." Turnover is measured for individual companies...

 in Congress and a change in the control of the House all contributed to a change in attitude about the appropriateness of former elected officials becoming lobbyists from that time onwards. The route between these roles became known as the revolving door
Revolving door (politics)
The revolving door is the movement of personnel between roles as legislators and regulators and the industries affected by the legislation and regulation and on within lobbying companies. In some cases the roles are performed in sequence but in certain circumstances may be performed at the same time...

.

Foreign Lobbying in the United States

While the Congress has done much to quell criticisms against the leverage of domestic lobbying firms by updating domestic lobbying legislation (such as the revision of the Lobbyist Disclosure Act in 1997), its inaction in rectifying loopholes in legislation regulating foreign lobbying has spawned a culture of foreign lobbying scandals in Congress

The concern posed by lobbying firms representing foreign entities – and potentially values incongruent with American principles - came to the fore after Axis power  agitprop was planted in to American soils during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

 through the efforts of public-relations specialist Ivy Lee's proxy firm "German Dye Trust". As a result, in 1938, the Foreign Agents Registration Act
Foreign Agents Registration Act
The Foreign Agents Registration Act is a United States law passed in 1938 requiring that agents representing the interests of foreign powers be properly identified to the American public. The act was passed in response to German propaganda in the lead-up to World War II...

  (FARA) was passed by Congress, requiring foreign lobbyists to share information about their contracts with the Justice Department. FARA's mandate is to disclose to the American public and policy makers the sources of the information that influences public opinions, policies, and law. However, the goal is not to restrict the speech of the lobbyist or the content of the lobbying. Nonetheless, it is estimated that less than half of foreign lobbyists who should register under FARA actually do so.

By the 1960s, patent failures in FARA’s enforcement led to public outcry against lobbying excesses, while revelations of foreign bribery circulated regularly well into the early 70’s. This prompted a groundswell of legislation proposed to reduce the autonomy of foreign firms, most of which not ratified for lack of constitutionality. While the House of Representatives passed Bill S. 349 in 1994 by a vote of 315-110 to increase public scrutiny of lobbying activities, currently, because of concerns about free speech constitutionality, about 75% of lobbyists do not have to register, including individuals who represent foreign interests.

In any case, the number of firms representing foreign companies is rising. Among the most infamous of these conduits of foreign interest are Washington’s APCO Worldwide
APCO Worldwide
APCO Worldwide is an independent communications consultancy. With more than 600 employees in 29 worldwide locations, it is the second largest independently-owned PR firm in the United States. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., APCO was founded in 1984 by Margery Kraus, who is now the firm’s global...

 , the firm which represented the dictatorship of General Sani Abacha
Sani Abacha
General Sani Abacha was a Nigerian military leader and politician. A Kanuri from Borno by tribe, he was born and brought up in Kano, Nigeria. He was the de facto President of Nigeria from 1993 to 1998....

  of Nigeria in 1995, when his regime hung nine pro-democracy activists. While current law forbids foreign nations from contributing to federal, state, or local elections, loopholes allow American subsidiaries of foreign corporations to establish separated segregated funds (SSFs) for the purpose of fund-raising. The obfuscated definition of which corporations are defined as foreign weakens the ability to regulate their activity. For instance, a Harvard Law Review article in 1986 noted that companies such as Burger King, Dr Pepper, and Baskin-Robbins, while bearing façades of “Americanness” as they are primarily operated in America, were, in fact, subsidiaries of foreign corporations. (Today, all three of the named companies are again American-owned, having been sold or spun off by their foreign owners in the first decade of the 21st century.) Foreign-funded lobbying efforts include the Israel
Israel lobby in the United States
The Israel lobby is a term used to describe the diverse coalition of those who, as individuals and as groups, seek and have sought to influence the foreign policy of the United States in support of Zionism, Israel or the specific policies of its government...

, Saudi Arabia, Turkish, Egypt, Pakistan, Libya, Iran
Iran lobby in the United States
The Iran lobby is used to describe the coalition of organizations that seek and have sought to influence the foreign policy of the United States toward the Islamic Republic of Iran.- History :...

 and China
China Lobby
In United States politics, the China lobby refers to any special interest group acting on behalf of the governments of either the People's Republic of China or the Republic of China to influence Sino-American relations. During most of the twentieth century, the term "China lobby" was usually used...

 lobbies.

An upsurge of lobbying by U.S. subsidiaries of foreign-owned companies against Democratic proposals limiting the former's spending on political campaigns was spurred in early 2010. The proposed bill would ban “spending by any U.S. subsidiary of a foreign company or any U.S. corporation that has foreign debt, one or more non-U.S. director or any foreign ownership”.

Recent reform

In 1995, the 104th Congress sought to reform Lobbying by passing the Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995
Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995
The Lobbying and Disclosure Act of 1995 was legislation aimed at bringing a level of accountability to federal lobbying practices in the United States. The law was amended substantially by the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007...

(LDA) which defines and requires lobbyists who are compensated for their actions to register with the Clerk of the House and the Secretary of the Senate semiannual reports of activities. The legislation was later amended by the Lobbying Disclosure Technical Amendments Act of 1998. These two pieces of legislation require a report containing an accounting of major expenditures as well as legislation that was influenced. Wording of this legislation can be found in . The increasing number of former lawmakers becoming lobbyists has led Senator Russ Feingold
Russ Feingold
Russell Dana "Russ" Feingold is an American politician from the U.S. state of Wisconsin. He served as a Democratic party member of the U.S. Senate from 1993 to 2011. From 1983 to 1993, Feingold was a Wisconsin State Senator representing the 27th District.He is a recipient of the John F...

 (D-WI) to propose paring back the many Capitol Hill privileges enjoyed by former senators and representatives. His plan would deprive lawmakers-turned-lobbyists of privileges such as unfettered access to otherwise "members only" areas such as the House and Senate floors and the House gym.

In January 2004, the U.S. Senate considered S. 1, an omnibus "ethics reform" bill. This bill contained a provision (Section 220) to establish federal regulation, for the first time, of certain efforts to encourage "grassroots lobbying." The bill said that "'grassroots lobbying' means the voluntary efforts of members of the general public to communicate their own views on an issue to Federal officials or to encourage other members of the general public to do the same." This provision was opposed by a broad array of organizations, including the American Civil Liberties Union
American Civil Liberties Union
The American Civil Liberties Union is a U.S. non-profit organization whose stated mission is "to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the Constitution and laws of the United States." It works through litigation, legislation, and...

, the National Right to Life Committee
National Right to Life Committee
The National Right to Life Committee is the oldest and largest pro-life organization in the United States with affiliates in all 50 states and over 3,000 local chapters nationwide. The group works through legislation and education to work against abortion, infanticide, euthanasia and assisted...

, and the National Rifle Association
National Rifle Association
The National Rifle Association of America is an American non-profit 501 civil rights organization which advocates for the protection of the Second Amendment of the United States Bill of Rights and the promotion of firearm ownership rights as well as marksmanship, firearm safety, and the protection...

, who argued that attempts by constituents to influence their representatives are at the heart of representational democracy, and that neither such contacts nor efforts to motivate such contacts should be considered "lobbying." On January 18, 2007, the U.S. Senate voted 55-43 to strike Section 220 from the bill.

In July 2005, Public Citizen
Public Citizen
Public Citizen is a non-profit, consumer rights advocacy group based in Washington, D.C., United States, with a branch in Austin, Texas. Public Citizen was founded by Ralph Nader in 1971, headed for 26 years by Joan Claybrook, and is now headed by Robert Weissman.-Lobbying Efforts:Public Citizen...

 published a report entitled "The Journey from Congress to K Street
K Street (Washington, D.C.)
K Street is a major thoroughfare in the United States capital of Washington, D.C. known as a center for numerous think tanks, lobbyists, and advocacy groups.-Location:...

": the report analyzed hundreds of lobbyist registration documents filed in compliance with the Lobbying Disclosure Act and the Foreign Agents Registration Act
Foreign Agents Registration Act
The Foreign Agents Registration Act is a United States law passed in 1938 requiring that agents representing the interests of foreign powers be properly identified to the American public. The act was passed in response to German propaganda in the lead-up to World War II...

 among other sources. It found that since 1998, 43 percent of the 198 members of Congress who left government to join private life have registered to lobby. The Washington Post
The Washington Post
The Washington Post is Washington, D.C.'s largest newspaper and its oldest still-existing paper, founded in 1877. Located in the capital of the United States, The Post has a particular emphasis on national politics. D.C., Maryland, and Virginia editions are printed for daily circulation...

described these results as reflecting the "sea change that has occurred in lawmakers' attitudes toward lobbying in recent years." The report included a case study
Case study
A case study is an intensive analysis of an individual unit stressing developmental factors in relation to context. The case study is common in social sciences and life sciences. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The latter type is used to explore causation in order to find...

 of one particularly successful lobbyist, Bob Livingston
Bob Livingston
Robert Linlithgow "Bob" Livingston Jr. is a Washington, D.C.-based lobbyist and a former Republican U.S. Representative from Louisiana...

, who stepped down as Speaker-elect
Speaker of the United States House of Representatives
The Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, or Speaker of the House, is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives...

 and resigned his seat in 1999. In the six years since his resignation, his lobbying group
The Livingston Group
The Livingston Group is the lobbying firm founded by Bob Livingston in 1999 after he stepped down as Speaker-elect and resigned his seat. The firm describes its services on its official website, saying it provides comprehensive public affairs, government relations and lobbying services on a global...

 grew into the 12th largest non-law lobbying firm, earning nearly $40 million by the end of 2004. During roughly the same time period, Livingston, his wife, and his two political action committee
Political action committee
In the United States, a political action committee, or PAC, is the name commonly given to a private group, regardless of size, organized to elect political candidates or to advance the outcome of a political issue or legislation. Legally, what constitutes a "PAC" for purposes of regulation is a...

s (PACs) contributed over $500,000 to the PACs or campaign funds of various candidates.

The Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal
Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal
The Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal is a United States political scandal relating to the work performed by political lobbyists Jack Abramoff, Ralph E. Reed, Jr., Grover Norquist and Michael Scanlon on Indian casino gambling interests for an estimated $85 million in fees. Abramoff and Scanlon...

 which started in the 1990s and led to a guilt plea in 2006 inspired the 'Legislative Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006' which was debated on the Senate floor in March 2006. According to Time Magazine article in its April 10 issue, the Senate passed legislation the first week of April 2006 to reform U.S. lobbying practices. The Senate bill:
  1. bars lobbyists themselves from buying gifts and meals for legislators, but it leaves a big loophole: firms and organizations represented by those lobbyists may still dole out freebies;
  2. Privately funded trips would still be allowed if lawmakers get prior approval from a commissioned ethics committee;
  3. It would also require lobbyists to file more frequent, more detailed reports on their activities, which would be posted in public domains. The bill was approved in 2006 by a 90-8 vote.


The above bill incorporated the Lobbying Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 legislation, which governs lobbyists, into a section and included another section which modified Senate rules. Some senators and a coalition of good-government groups assailed the bill as being too weak.

The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act
Honest Leadership and Open Government Act
The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007 is a law of the United States federal government that amended parts of the Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995...

 of 2007 was a comprehensive ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...

 and lobbying reform bill. The bill, , passed on May 24, 2007 in the United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...

 in the 110th United States Congress
110th United States Congress
The One Hundred Tenth United States Congress was the meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, between January 3, 2007, and January 3, 2009, during the last two years of the second term of President George W. Bush. It was composed of the Senate and the House of...

 by a vote of 396-22-14. A parallel Senate version of the legislation, , passed the House on July 31, 2007 by a vote of 411 to 8. After the House & Senate resolved their differences and passed an amended revision, President Bush signed the enrolled bill into law .

The Executive Branch Reform Act
Executive Branch Reform Act
The Executive Branch Reform Act was a bill proposed in the 110th United States Congress and would have required thousands of federal officials to report into a government database the names of persons who contact them attempting to "influence" government policies or actions.The prime sponsor of...

, H.R. 985 was a bill which would have required over 8,000 Executive Branch officials to report into a public database nearly any "significant contact" from any "private party." Although promoted as a regulation on "lobbyists," the bill defines "private party" as "any person or entity" except "Federal, State, or local government official or a person representing such an official." Thus, under the proposal, anyone who contacts a covered government official is in effect deemed to be a lobbyist, unless the communicator is another government official or government staff person. The bill defines "significant contact" to be any "oral or written communication (including electronic communication) . . . in which the private party seeks to influence official action by any officer or employee of the executive branch of the United States." The bill is supported by some organizations as an expansion of "government in the sunshine," but other groups oppose it as an infringing on the right to petition by making it impossible for citizens to communicate their views on controversial issues without having their names and viewpoints entered into a government database. The U.S. Department of Justice has raised constitutional and other objections to the bill.

On 21 January 2009, the day after he took office
Inauguration of Barack Obama
The inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President of the United States took place on Tuesday, January 20, 2009. The inauguration, which set a record attendance for any event held in Washington, D.C., marked the commencement of the four-year term of Barack Obama as President and Joe...

, U.S. President Barack Obama
Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. Obama previously served as a United States Senator from Illinois, from January 2005 until he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.Born in...

 signed two executive orders and three presidential memoranda
Presidential memorandum
A presidential memorandum is a type of presidential order issued by the President of the United States to the executive branch of the United States government. Presidential memoranda do not have an established process for issuance or publication...

 to help ensure his administration would be a more open, transparent, and accountable government. These documents attempt to rein in the influence of lobbyists, bring increased accountability to federal spending, and limit influence of special interests; they include a lobbyist gift ban and a "revolving door" ban. In May 2009, a Recovery Act Lobbying Rules set new limits on special interest influence.

Lobbying expenditure by sector

The top sectors and their total spending between 1998 and 2010 were:
Client Amount Spent Percentage of Total
1 Finance, Insurance & Real Estate $4,274,060,331 14.53%
2 Health $4,222,427,808 14.53%
3 Misc Business $4,149,842,571 14.11%
4 Communications/Electronics $3,497,881,399 11.89%
5 Energy & Natural Resources $3,104,104,518 10.55%
6 Transportation $2,245,118,222 7.63%
7 Other $2,207,772,363 7.50%
8 Ideological/Single-Issue $1,477,294,241 5.02%
9 Agribusiness $1,280,824,983 4.12%
10 Defense $1,216,469,173 4.13%
11 Construction $480,363,108 1.63%
12 Labor $427,355,408 1.45%
13 Lawyers & Lobbyists themselves $336,170,306 1.14%


Note: These amounts do not include campaign contributions.

See also

  • AIPAC
    American Israel Public Affairs Committee
    The American Israel Public Affairs Committee is a lobbying group that advocates pro-Israel policies to the Congress and Executive Branch of the United States...

  • AACL
    Albanian American Civic League
    Albanian American Civic League is the only Albanian lobby in Washington, DC, representing the concerns and interests of the Albanian people. The Civic League was founded by former Congressman Joseph DioGuardi and a board of Albanian Americans in 1989...

  • AARP
    AARP
    AARP, formerly the American Association of Retired Persons, is the United States-based non-governmental organization and interest group, founded in 1958 by Ethel Percy Andrus, PhD, a retired educator from California, and based in Washington, D.C. According to its mission statement, it is "a...

  • AAA
    American Automobile Association
    AAA , formerly known as the American Automobile Association, is a federation of 51 independently operated motor clubs throughout North America. AAA is a not-for-profit member service organization with more than 51 million members. AAA provides services to its members such as travel, automotive,...

  • Arab lobby in the United States
    Arab lobby in the United States
    The Arab lobby in the United States is a collection of formal and informal groups and professional lobbyists paid directly by Arab governments that lobby the public and government of the United States on behalf of Arab interests. and/or on behalf of Arab-American rights in the United...

  • ASAIF
  • Center for Responsive Politics
    Center for Responsive Politics
    The Center for Responsive Politics is a non-profit, nonpartisan research group based in Washington, D.C. that tracks money in politics and the effect of money and lobbying activity on elections and public policy and maintains a public online database of its information.Their database...

  • Diaspora politics in the United States
    Diaspora politics in the United States
    Diaspora politics in the United States is the study of the political behavior of transnational ethnic diasporas, their relationship with their ethnic homelands and their host states, as well as their prominent role in ethnic conflicts. This article describes case studies and theories of political...

  • Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal
    Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal
    The Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal is a United States political scandal relating to the work performed by political lobbyists Jack Abramoff, Ralph E. Reed, Jr., Grover Norquist and Michael Scanlon on Indian casino gambling interests for an estimated $85 million in fees. Abramoff and Scanlon...

  • Jerry Lewis - Lowery lobbying firm controversy
    Jerry Lewis - Lowery lobbying firm controversy
    The Jerry Lewis – Lowery lobbying firm controversy stems from the relationship between Congressman Jerry Lewis and a lobbying firm, known as Copeland Lowery Jacquez Denton & White, where good friend and former U.S...

  • Honest Leadership and Open Government Act
    Honest Leadership and Open Government Act
    The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007 is a law of the United States federal government that amended parts of the Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995...

     of 2007
  • Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995
    Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995
    The Lobbying and Disclosure Act of 1995 was legislation aimed at bringing a level of accountability to federal lobbying practices in the United States. The law was amended substantially by the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007...

  • Money loop
  • MADD
    Mothers Against Drunk Driving
    Mothers Against Drunk Driving is a non-profit organization in the United States that seeks to stop drunk driving, support those affected by drunk driving, prevent underage drinking, and overall push for stricter alcohol policy...

  • NRA
    National Rifle Association
    The National Rifle Association of America is an American non-profit 501 civil rights organization which advocates for the protection of the Second Amendment of the United States Bill of Rights and the promotion of firearm ownership rights as well as marksmanship, firearm safety, and the protection...

  • PAC
    Political action committee
    In the United States, a political action committee, or PAC, is the name commonly given to a private group, regardless of size, organized to elect political candidates or to advance the outcome of a political issue or legislation. Legally, what constitutes a "PAC" for purposes of regulation is a...

  • United States v. Harriss
    United States v. Harriss
    United States v. Harriss, 347 U.S. 612 , was a U.S. Supreme Court case applied directly to the Regulation of Lobbying Act.-Proceedings and outcome:Lobbyists challenged the Regulation of Lobbying Act for being unconstitutionally vague and unclear...

  • NARFE
    NARFE
    National Active and Retired Federal Employees Associations is an association dedicated to improving the benefits of retired federal employees...

     (National Active and Retired Federal Employees)

Further reading

  • Balogh, Brian "'Mirrors of Desires': Interest Groups, Elections, and the Targeted Style in Twentieth-Century America," in Meg Jacobs, William J. Novak, and Julian Zelizer, eds. The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political Theory, (2003), 222–49
  • Baumgartner, Frank R., and Beth L. Leech. Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political Science (1998), 64–82, reviews the political science literature on interest groups
  • Blanes i Vidal, Jordi; Mirko Draca and Christian Fons-Rosen: Revolving Door Lobbyists, 5th Annual Conference on Empirical Legal Studies Paper, July 2010
  • Clemens, Elisabeth S. The People’s Lobby: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest-Group Politics in the United States, 1890–1925 (1997)
  • Hansen, John M. Gaining Access: Congress and the Farm Lobby, 1919–1981 (1991);
  • Kaiser, Robert G. "So Damn Much Money: The Triumph of Lobbying and the Corrosion of American Government" (2009).
  • Loomis, Christopher M. "The Politics of Uncertainty: Lobbyists and Propaganda in Early Twentieth-Century America," Journal of Policy History Volume 21, Number 2, 2009 in Project MUSE
    Project MUSE
    Project MUSE is an online database of current and back issues of peer-reviewed humanities and social sciences journals. It was founded in 1993 by Todd Kelley and Susan Lewis and is a project of the Johns Hopkins University Press and the Milton S. Eisenhower Library. It had support from the Mellon...

  • Thompson, Margaret S. The "Spider Web": Congress and Lobbying in the Age of Grant (1985) on 1870s
  • Tichenor, Daniel J. and Richard A. Harris, "Organized Interests and American Political Development," Political Science Quarterly 117 (Winter 2002–3): 587–612 online
  • Zelizer, Julian E. Arsenal of Democracy: The Politics of National Security - From World War II to the War on Terrorism (2009) excerpt and text search

External links

General:

Lobbying in the United States:
  • LobbyWatch from The Center for Public Integrity
  • Lobbying Database from OpenSecrets.org
    Center for Responsive Politics
    The Center for Responsive Politics is a non-profit, nonpartisan research group based in Washington, D.C. that tracks money in politics and the effect of money and lobbying activity on elections and public policy and maintains a public online database of its information.Their database...

  • Clean Up Washington Public Citizen
    Public Citizen
    Public Citizen is a non-profit, consumer rights advocacy group based in Washington, D.C., United States, with a branch in Austin, Texas. Public Citizen was founded by Ralph Nader in 1971, headed for 26 years by Joan Claybrook, and is now headed by Robert Weissman.-Lobbying Efforts:Public Citizen...

     project
  • Lobbying Info archives of Public Citizen
    Public Citizen
    Public Citizen is a non-profit, consumer rights advocacy group based in Washington, D.C., United States, with a branch in Austin, Texas. Public Citizen was founded by Ralph Nader in 1971, headed for 26 years by Joan Claybrook, and is now headed by Robert Weissman.-Lobbying Efforts:Public Citizen...

     project
  • CQ MoneyLine
  • FollowtheMoney.org
  • FundRace.org
  • Government Accountability Groups (from "500 Leading U.S. Progressive Organizations by Category")
  • Sourcewatch
  • A case study about lobbying concerning the U.S. steel tariffs in 2002-2003

Lobbyists
  • Lobbying Discloser Act Reports and Lobbyist Public Disclosure from the United States Senate
    United States Senate
    The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...

     Office of Public Records
  • Lobbyists.info database of lobbyists and government relations professionals
  • Government Lobbying from Yahoo!
    Yahoo!
    Yahoo! Inc. is an American multinational internet corporation headquartered in Sunnyvale, California, United States. The company is perhaps best known for its web portal, search engine , Yahoo! Directory, Yahoo! Mail, Yahoo! News, Yahoo! Groups, Yahoo! Answers, advertising, online mapping ,...

    Directory
  • Public Affairs Links - US Portal, independent information on the US lobbying industry
The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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