Living systems theory is a
general theory- Ideas :*Generalized Theory of Gravitation*General Theory of Relativity*General Systems Theory*Generalized cohomology theory*General theory of collaboration- Books :*Keynes, John Maynard, General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money...
about the existence of all living
systemSystem is a set of interacting or interdependent entities forming an integrated whole....
s, their
structureStructure is a fundamental and sometimes intangible notion covering the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities...
,
interactionInteraction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect...
,
behaviorBehavior or behaviour refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. Behavior can be conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary....
and
developmentDevelopmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis," which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.Developmental biology is that...
. This work is created by
James Grier MillerJames Grier Miller was an American biologist, a pioneer of systems science, who originated the modern use of the term "behavioral science", and founded and directed the multi-disciplinary Mental Health Research Institute at the University of Michigan.- Biography :Miller received his A.B. summa cum...
, which was intended to formalize the concept of "life". According to Miller's original conception as spelled out in his
magnum opusMagnum opus , from the Latin meaning great work, refers to the largest, and perhaps the best, greatest, most popular, or most renowned achievement of an author, artist, or composer.The term Great Work is also used in several...
Living Systems, a "living system" must contain each of 20 "critical subsystems", which are defined by their functions and visible in numerous systems, from simple cells to organisms, countries, and societies.
Living systems theory is a
general theory- Ideas :*Generalized Theory of Gravitation*General Theory of Relativity*General Systems Theory*Generalized cohomology theory*General theory of collaboration- Books :*Keynes, John Maynard, General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money...
about the existence of all living
systemSystem is a set of interacting or interdependent entities forming an integrated whole....
s, their
structureStructure is a fundamental and sometimes intangible notion covering the recognition, observation, nature, and stability of patterns and relationships of entities...
,
interactionInteraction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect...
,
behaviorBehavior or behaviour refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. Behavior can be conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary....
and
developmentDevelopmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis," which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.Developmental biology is that...
. This work is created by
James Grier MillerJames Grier Miller was an American biologist, a pioneer of systems science, who originated the modern use of the term "behavioral science", and founded and directed the multi-disciplinary Mental Health Research Institute at the University of Michigan.- Biography :Miller received his A.B. summa cum...
, which was intended to formalize the concept of "life". According to Miller's original conception as spelled out in his
magnum opusMagnum opus , from the Latin meaning great work, refers to the largest, and perhaps the best, greatest, most popular, or most renowned achievement of an author, artist, or composer.The term Great Work is also used in several...
Living Systems, a "living system" must contain each of 20 "critical subsystems", which are defined by their functions and visible in numerous systems, from simple cells to organisms, countries, and societies. In
Living Systems Miller provides a detailed look at a number of systems in order of increasing size, and identifies his subsystems in each.
Living systems
Miller considers living systems as a subset of all
systemSystem is a set of interacting or interdependent entities forming an integrated whole....
s. Below the level of living systems, he defines
spaceSpace is the boundless, three-dimensional extent in which objects and events occur and have relative position and direction. Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of the boundless four-dimensional...
and
timeTime is a component of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects...
,
matterThe term matter traditionally refers to the substance that all objects are made of. One common way to identify this "substance" is through its physical properties; a common definition of matter is anything that has mass and occupies a volume...
and
energyIn physics, energy is a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of work that can be performed by a force, an attribute of objects and systems that is subject to a conservation law...
,
informationInformation as a concept has many meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. The concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.The English...
and
entropyEntropy is a concept of information maintaining great importance in physics, chemistry, and information theory...
, levels of
organizationAn organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its environment...
, and physical and conceptual factors, and above living systems ecological, planetary and solar systems, galaxies, and so forth.
Living systems are by definition open self-organizing
systemSystem is a set of interacting or interdependent entities forming an integrated whole....
s that have the special characteristics of life and interact with their
environmentThe social environment , also known as the milieu, is the identical or similar social positions and social roles as a whole that influence the individuals of a group. The social environment of an individual is the culture that he or she was educated and/or lives in, and the people and institutions...
. This takes place by means of information and material-energy exchanges. Living systems can be as simple as a single
cellThe cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos...
or as complex as a supranational
organizationAn organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its environment...
such as the European Economic Community. Regardless of their
complexityIn general usage, complexity tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement. The study of these complex linkages is the main goal of network theory and network science...
, they each depend upon the same essential twenty subsystems (or processes) in order to survive and to continue the propagation of their species or types beyond a single generation.
Miller said that systems exist at eight "nested" hierarchical levels: cell, organ, organism, group, organization, community, society, and supranational system. At each level, a system invariably comprises 20 critical subsystems, which process matter/energy or information except for the first two, which process both matter/energy and information: reproducer & boundary.
The processors of matter/energy are:
- Ingestor, Distributor, Converter, Producer, Storage, Extruder, Motor, Supporter
The processors of information are
- Input transducer, Internal transducer, Channel and net, Timer (added later), Decoder, Associator, Memory, Decider, Encoder, Output transducer.
Miller's Living systems theory
James Grier Miller in 1978 wrote a 1,102-page volume to present his living systems theory. He constructed a
general theory- Ideas :*Generalized Theory of Gravitation*General Theory of Relativity*General Systems Theory*Generalized cohomology theory*General theory of collaboration- Books :*Keynes, John Maynard, General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money...
of living
systemSystem is a set of interacting or interdependent entities forming an integrated whole....
s by focusing on concrete systems—nonrandom accumulations of matter-energy in physical space-time organized into interacting, interrelated subsystems or
componentA component is any smaller, self-contained part of a larger entity.-Usage:Component may refer to:* Electronic components, the constituents of electronic circuits* Component ingredient, the main ingredient in a dish...
s. Slightly revising the original model a dozen years later, he distinguished eight “nested” hierarchical levels in such complex structures. Each level is “nested” in the sense that each higher level contains the next lower level in a nested fashion.
His central thesis is that the systems in existence at all eight levels are open systems composed of 20 critical subsystems that process inputs, throughputs, and outputs of various forms of matter/energy and information. Two of these subsystems—reproducer and boundary—process both matter/energy and information. Eight of them process only matter/energy. The other 10 process information only.
All nature is a continuum. The endless complexity of life is organized into patterns which repeat themselves—theme and variations—at each level of system. These similarities and differences are proper concerns for science. From the ceaseless streaming of protoplasm to the many-vectored activities of supranational systems, there are continuous flows through living systems as they maintain their highly organized steady states.
Seppänen (1998) says that Miller applied general systems theory on a broad scale to describe all aspects of living systems”
Topics in living systems theory
Miller’s theory posits that the mutual interrelationship of the components of a system extends across the hierarchical levels. Examples: Cells and organs of a living system thrive on the food the organism obtains from its suprasystem; the member countries of a supranational system reap the benefits accrued from the communal activities to which each one contributes. Miller says that his eclectic theory “ties together past discoveries from many disciplines and provides an outline into which new findings can be fitted”.
Miller says the concepts of space, time, matter, energy, and information are essential to his theory because the living systems exist in space and are made of matter and energy organized by information. Miller’s theory of living systems employs two sorts of spaces: physical or geographical space, and conceptual or abstracted spaces. Time is the fundamental “fourth dimension” of the physical space-time continuum/spiral. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies physical space. Mass and energy are equivalent as one can be converted into the other. Information refers to the degrees of freedom that exist in a given situation to choose among signals, symbols, messages, or patterns to be transmitted.
Other relevant concepts are system, structure, process, type, level, echelon, suprasystem, subsystem, transmissions, and steady state. A system can be conceptual, concrete or abstracted. The structure of a system is the arrangement of the subsystems and their components in three-dimensional space at any point of time. Process, which can be reversible or irreversible, refers to change over time of matter/energy or information in a system. Type defines living systems with similar characteristics. Level is the position in a hierarchy of systems. Many complex living systems, at various levels, are organized into two or more echelons. The suprasystem of any living system is the next higher system in which it is a subsystem or component. The totality of all the structures in a system which carry out a particular process is a subsystem. Transmissions are inputs and outputs in concrete systems. Because living systems are open systems, with continually altering fluxes of matter/energy and information, many of their equilibria are dynamic—situations identified as steady states or flux equilibria.
Miller identifies the comparable matter-energy and information processing critical subsystems. Elaborating on the eight hierarchical levels, he defines society, which constitutes the seventh hierarchy, as “a large, living, concrete system with [community] and lower levels of living systems as subsystems and components”. Society may include small, primitive, totipotential communities; ancient city-states, and kingdoms; as well as modern nation-states and empires that are not supranational systems. Miller provides general descriptions of each of the subsystems that fit all eight levels.
A supranational system, in Miller’s view, “is composed of two or more societies, some or all of whose processes are under the control of a decider that is superordinate to their highest echelons” . However, he contends that no supranational system with all its 20 subsystems under control of its decider exists today. The absence of a supranational decider precludes the existence of a concrete supranational system. Miller says that studying a supranational system is problematical because its subsystems
...tend to consist of few components besides the decoder. These systems do little matter-energy processing. The power of component societies [nations] today is almost always greater than the power of supranational deciders. Traditionally, theory at this level has been based upon intuition and study of history rather than data collection. Some quantitative research is now being done, and construction of global-system models and simulations is currently burgeoning.
At the supranational system level, Miller’s emphasis is on international organizations, associations, and groups comprising representatives of societies (nation-states). Miller identifies the subsystems at this level to suit this emphasis. Thus, for example, the reproducer is “any multipurpose supranational system which creates a single purpose supranational organization” (p. 914); and the boundary is the “supranational forces, usually located on or near supranational borders, which defend, guard, or police them” (p. 914).
Strengths of Miller’s theory
Not just those specialized in international communication, but all communication science scholars could pay particular attention to the major contributions of Living systems theory (LST) to social systems approaches that
BaileyKenneth D. Bailey is an American sociologist, systems scientist and professor of sociology at the University of California in Los Angeles.- Biography :...
has pointed out:
- The specification of the 20 critical subsystems in any living system.
- The specification of the eight hierarchical levels of living systems.
- The emphasis on cross-level analysis and the production of numerous cross-level hypotheses.
- Cross-subsystem research (e.g., formulation and testing of hypotheses in two or more subsystems at a time).
- Cross-level, cross-subsystem research.
BaileyKenneth D. Bailey is an American sociologist, systems scientist and professor of sociology at the University of California in Los Angeles.- Biography :...
says that LST, perhaps the “most integrative” social systems theory, has made many more contributions that may be easily overlooked, such as: providing a detailed analysis of types of systems; making a distinction between concrete and abstracted systems; discussion of physical space and time; placing emphasis on information processing; providing an analysis of entropy; recognition of totipotential systems, and partipotential systems; providing an innovative approach to the structure-process issue; and introducing the concept of joint subsystem—a subsystem that belongs to two systems simultaneously; of dispersal—lateral, outward, upward, and downward; of inclusion—inclusion of something from the environment that is not part of the system; of artifact—an animal-made or human-made inclusion; of adjustment process, which combats stress in a system; and of critical subsystems, which carry out processes that all living systems need to survive.
LST's analysis of the 20 interacting subsystems,
BaileyKenneth D. Bailey is an American sociologist, systems scientist and professor of sociology at the University of California in Los Angeles.- Biography :...
adds, clearly distinguishing between matter/energy processing and information-processing, as well as LST’s analysis of the eight interrelated system levels, enables us to understand how social systems are linked to biological systems. LST also analyzes the irregularities or “organizational pathologies” of systems functioning (e.g., system stress and strain, feedback irregularities, information-input overload). It explicates the role of entropy in social research while it equates
negentropyThe negentropy, also negative entropy or syntropy, of a living system is the entropy that it exports to keep its own entropy low; it lies at the intersection of entropy and life...
with information and order. It emphasizes both structure and process, as well as their interrelations
Limitations
It omits the analysis of subjective phenomena, and it overemphasizes concrete Q-analysis (correlation of objects) to the virtual exclusion of R-analysis (correlation of variables). By asserting that societies (ranging from totipotential communities to nation-states and non-supranational systems) have greater control over their subsystem components than supranational systems have, it dodges the issue of transnational power over the contemporary social systems. Miller’s supranational system bears no resemblance to the modern world-system that
Immanuel WallersteinImmanuel Maurice Wallerstein is an American sociologist, historical social scientist, and world-systems analyst...
(1974) described although both of them were looking at the same living (dissipative) structure.
See also
- Artificial life
Artificial life is a field of study and an associated art form which examine systems related to life, its processes, and its evolution through simulations using computer models, robotics, and biochemistry...
- Biological organisation
- Biological systems
- Systems theory
Systems theory is an interdisciplinary theory about the nature of complex systems in nature, society, and science, and is a framework by which one can investigate and/or describe any group of objects that work together to produce some result. This could be a single organism, any organization or...
Further reading
- Kenneth D. Bailey
Kenneth D. Bailey is an American sociologist, systems scientist and professor of sociology at the University of California in Los Angeles.- Biography :...
, (1994). Sociology and the new systems theory: Toward a theoretical synthesis. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
- Kenneth D. Bailey (2006). Living systems theory and social entropy theory. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 22, 291-300.
- James Grier Miller, (1978). Living systems. New York: McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., is a publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. Its primary areas of business are education, publishing, broadcasting, and financial and business services...
. ISBN 0-87081-363-3
- Miller, J.L., & Miller, J.G. (1992). Greater than the sum of its parts: Subsystems which process both matter-energy and information. Behavioral Science, 37, 1-38.
- Jouko Seppänen, (1998). Systems ideology in human and social sciences. In G. Altmann & W.A. Koch (Eds.), Systems: New paradigms for the human sciences (pp. 180-302). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
External links