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Lithium battery

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What is the difference between a lithium ion battery, a lithium air battery, and a solid state battery in terms of electric vehicles?

Encyclopedia

Lithium batteries are disposable

Disposable

A disposable is a product designed for cheapness and short-term convenience rather than medium to long-term durability, with most products only intended for single use. The term is also sometimes used for products that may last several months to distinguish from similar products that last...

(primary

Primary cell

A primary cell is any kind of battery in which the electrochemical reaction is not reversible, rendering the cell non-rechargeable. A common example of a primary cell is the disposable battery. Unlike a secondary cell, the reaction cannot be reversed by running a current into the cell; the chemical...

) batteries

Battery (electricity)

An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery in 1800 by Alessandro Volta and especially since the technically improved Daniell cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power...

that have lithium

Lithium

Lithium is a soft, silver-white metal that belongs to the alkali metal group of chemical elements. It is represented by the symbol Li, and it has the atomic number 3. Under standard conditions it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly...

metal or lithium compounds as an anode

Anode

An anode is an electrode through which electric current flows into a polarized electrical device. Mnemonic: ACID ....

. Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages from 1.5 V to about 3.7 V, over twice the voltage of an ordinary zinc–carbon battery or alkaline battery

Alkaline battery

Alkaline batteries are a type of primary batteries dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide . A rechargeable alkaline battery allows reuse of specially designed cells....

. Lithium batteries are widely used in products such as portable consumer electronic devices.

Lithium primary batteries account for 28% of all primary battery sales in Japan but only 1% of all battery sales in Switzerland. In the UK and EU only 0.5% of all battery sales including secondary types are lithium primaries.

Description

The term "lithium battery" refers to a family of different chemistries, comprising many types of cathode

Cathode

A cathode is an electrode through which electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device. Mnemonic: CCD .Cathode polarity is not always negative...

s and electrolytes.

The most common type of lithium cell used in consumer applications uses metallic lithium as anode and manganese dioxide as cathode, with a salt of lithium dissolved in an organic solvent

Solvent

A solvent is a liquid, solid, or gas that dissolves another solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature...

.
Another type of lithium cell having a large energy density is the lithium-thionyl chloride cell. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are generally not sold to the consumer market, and find more use in commercial/industrial applications, or are installed into devices where no consumer replacement is performed. In this cell, a liquid mixture of thionyl chloride

Thionyl chloride

Thionyl chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula SOCl2. It is a reactive chemical reagent used in chlorination reactions. It is a colorless, distillable liquid at room temperature and pressure that decomposes above 140 °C. Thionyl chloride is sometimes confused with sulfuryl...

(SOCl₂) and lithium tetrachloroaluminate

Lithium tetrachloroaluminate

Lithium tetrachloroaluminate is an inorganic compound, a tetrachloroaluminate of lithium, with the formula LiAlCl4....

(LiAlCl₄) acts as the electrolyte

Electrolyte

In chemistry, an electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that make the substance electrically conductive. The most typical electrolyte is an ionic solution, but molten electrolytes and solid electrolytes are also possible....

and cathode

Cathode

A cathode is an electrode through which electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device. Mnemonic: CCD .Cathode polarity is not always negative...

respectively. A porous carbon material serves as a cathode current collector which receives electrons from the external circuit. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are well suited to extremely low-current applications where long life is necessary, such as wireless alarm systems.

Chemistries

Chemistry	Cathode	Electrolyte	Nominal voltage	Open-circuit voltage	Wh/kg	Wh/dm³
Li-MnO₂ (Li-Mn, "CR")	Heat-treated manganese dioxide	Lithium perchlorate Lithium perchlorate Lithium perchlorate is the inorganic compound with the formula LiClO4. This white or colourless crystalline salt is noteworthy for its high solubility in many solvents. It exists both in anhydrous form and as a trihydrate.-Uses:... in propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate is an organic compound, a cyclic carbonate of propylene glycol. This colorless and odorless liquid is useful as a polar, aprotic solvent... and dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane, also known as glyme, monoglyme, dimethyl glycol, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, dimethyl cellosolve, and DME, is a clear, colorless, aprotic, and liquid ether that is used as a solvent. Dimethoxyethane is miscible with water.Dimethoxyethane is often used as a higher boiling...	3 V	3.3 V	280	580
Li-MnO₂ (Li-Mn, "CR")	The most common consumer grade battery, about 80% of the lithium battery market. Uses inexpensive materials. Suitable for low-drain, long-life, low-cost applications. High energy density per both mass and volume. Can deliver high pulse currents. Wide temperature range. With discharge the internal impedance rises and the terminal voltage decreases. Maximum temperature limited to about 60 °C. High self-discharge at high temperatures.
Li-SOCl₂	Thionyl chloride Thionyl chloride Thionyl chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula SOCl2. It is a reactive chemical reagent used in chlorination reactions. It is a colorless, distillable liquid at room temperature and pressure that decomposes above 140 °C. Thionyl chloride is sometimes confused with sulfuryl...	Lithium tetrachloroaluminate Lithium tetrachloroaluminate Lithium tetrachloroaluminate is an inorganic compound, a tetrachloroaluminate of lithium, with the formula LiAlCl4.... in thionyl chloride	3.5 V	3.65 V	290	670
Li-SOCl₂	Liquid cathode. For low temperature applications. Can operate down to −55 °C, where it retains over 50% of its rated capacity. Negligible amount of gas generated in nominal use, limited amount under abuse. Has relatively high internal impedance and limited short-circuit current. High energy density, about 500 Wh/kg. Toxic. Electrolyte reacts with water. Low-current cells used for portable electronics and memory backup. High-current cells used in military applications. In long storage forms passivation layer on anode, which may lead to temporary voltage delay when put into service. High cost and safety concerns limit use in civilian applications. Can explode when shorted. Underwriters Laboratories Underwriters Laboratories Underwriters Laboratories Inc. is an independent product safety certification organization. Established in 1894, the company has its headquarters in Northbrook, Illinois. UL develops standards and test procedures for products, materials, components, assemblies, tools and equipment, chiefly dealing... require trained technician for replacement of these batteries. Hazardous waste, Class 9 Hazmat shipment.
Li-SOCl₂,BrCl, Li-BCX	Thionyl chloride Thionyl chloride Thionyl chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula SOCl2. It is a reactive chemical reagent used in chlorination reactions. It is a colorless, distillable liquid at room temperature and pressure that decomposes above 140 °C. Thionyl chloride is sometimes confused with sulfuryl... with bromine chloride	Lithium tetrachloroaluminate Lithium tetrachloroaluminate Lithium tetrachloroaluminate is an inorganic compound, a tetrachloroaluminate of lithium, with the formula LiAlCl4.... in thionyl chloride	3.7-3.8 V	3.9 V	350	770
Li-SOCl₂,BrCl, Li-BCX	Liquid cathode. A variant of the thionyl chloride battery, with 300 mV higher voltage. The higher voltage drops back to 3.5 V soon as the bromine chloride gets consumed during the first 10-20% of discharge. The cells with added bromine chloride are thought to be safer when abused.
Li-SO₂Cl₂	Sulfuryl chloride Sulfuryl chloride Sulfuryl chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula SO2Cl2. At room temperature, it is a colorless liquid with a pungent odor. Sulfuryl chloride is not found in nature, as can be inferred from its rapid hydrolysis....		3.7	3.95	330	720
Li-SO₂Cl₂	Liquid cathode. Similar to thionyl chloride. Discharge does not result in buildup of elemental sulfur, which is thought to be involved in some hazardous reactions, therefore sulfuryl chloride batteries may be safer. Commercial deployment hindered by tendency of the electrolyte to corrode the lithium anodes, reducing the shelf life. Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine is the chemical element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is the second lightest halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17. The element forms diatomic molecules under standard conditions, called dichlorine... is added to some cells to make them more resistant to abuse. Sulfuryl chloride cells give less maximum current than thionyl chloride ones, due to polarization of the carbon cathode. Sulfuryl chloride reacts violently with water, releasing hydrogen chloride and sulfuric acid.
Li-SO₂	Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula . It is released by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide unless the sulfur compounds are removed before burning the fuel... on teflon-bonded carbon Carbon Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds...	Lithium bromide Lithium bromide Lithium bromide, or LiBr, is a chemical compound of lithium and bromine. Its extreme hygroscopic character makes LiBr useful as a desiccant in certain air conditioning systems.-Production and properties:... in sulfur dioxide with small amount of acetonitrile Acetonitrile Acetonitrile is the chemical compound with formula . This colourless liquid is the simplest organic nitrile. It is produced mainly as a byproduct of acrylonitrile manufacture...	2.85 V	3.0 V	250	400
Li-SO₂	Liquid cathode. Can operate down to −55 °C and up to +70 °C. Contains liquid SO₂ at high pressure. Requires safety vent, can explode in some conditions. High energy density. High cost. At low temperatures and high currents performs better than Li-MnO₂. Toxic. Acetonitrile forms lithium cyanide, and can form hydrogen cyanide in high temperatures. Used in military applications. Addition of bromine monochloride Bromine monochloride Bromine monochloride, also called bromine chloride, bromochloride, and bromine chloride, is an interhalogen inorganic compound with chemical formula BrCl. It is an unstable brownish yellow gas with boiling point 5°C and melting point −66 °C. Its CAS number is 13863-41-7 and its EINECS number is... can boost the voltage to 3.9 V and increase energy density.
Li-(CF)_x ("BR")	Carbon monofluoride Carbon monofluoride Carbon monofluoride , also called polycarbon monofluoride, polycarbon fluoride, poly, and graphite fluoride, is a material formed by high-temperature reaction of fluorine gas with graphite, charcoal, or pyrolytic carbon powder. Its CAS number is...	Lithium tetrafluoroborate Lithium tetrafluoroborate Lithium tetrafluoroborate is a chemical compound with the formula LiBF4. It can be dissolved in propylene carbonate, dimethoxyethane, and/or gamma-butyrolactone for use as an electrolyte in lithium batteries.... in propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate is an organic compound, a cyclic carbonate of propylene glycol. This colorless and odorless liquid is useful as a polar, aprotic solvent... , dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane, also known as glyme, monoglyme, dimethyl glycol, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, dimethyl cellosolve, and DME, is a clear, colorless, aprotic, and liquid ether that is used as a solvent. Dimethoxyethane is miscible with water.Dimethoxyethane is often used as a higher boiling... , and/or gamma-butyrolactone Gamma-Butyrolactone gamma-Butyrolactone is a hygroscopic colorless oily liquid with a weak characteristic odor and is soluble in water. GBL is a common solvent and reagent in chemistry and is used as an aroma compound, as a stain remover, as a superglue remover, as a paint stripper, and as a solvent in some wet...	2.8 V	3.1 V	360	680
Li-(CF)_x ("BR")	Cathode material formed by high-temperature intercalation Intercalation (chemistry) In chemistry, intercalation is the reversible inclusion of a molecule between two other molecules . Examples include DNA intercalation and graphite intercalation compounds.- DNA intercalation :... of fluorine Fluorine Fluorine is the chemical element with atomic number 9, represented by the symbol F. It is the lightest element of the halogen column of the periodic table and has a single stable isotope, fluorine-19. At standard pressure and temperature, fluorine is a pale yellow gas composed of diatomic... gas into graphite Graphite The mineral graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon. It was named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789 from the Ancient Greek γράφω , "to draw/write", for its use in pencils, where it is commonly called lead . Unlike diamond , graphite is an electrical conductor, a semimetal... powder. High energy density (250 Wh/kg), 7 year shelf life. Used for low to moderate current applications in memory and clock backup batteries. Very good safety record. Used in aerospace applications, qualified for space since 1976. Used in military applications both terrestrial and marine, and in missiles. Also used in cardiac pacemakers. Maximum temperature 85 °C. Very low self-discharge (<0.5%/year at 60 °C, <1%/yr at 85 °C). Developed in 1970s by Matsushita.
Li-I₂	Iodine Iodine Iodine is a chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. The name is pronounced , , or . The name is from the , meaning violet or purple, due to the color of elemental iodine vapor....	solid organic charge transfer complex (poly-2-vinylpyridine Polypyridine complex Polypyridine complexes are compounds in which a polypyridine, such as 2,2'-bipyridine, 1,10-phenanthroline, or 2,2';6'2"-terpyridine, coordinates to a metal ion.... , P2VP)	2.8 V	3.1 V
Li-I₂	Solid electrolyte. Very high reliability. Used in medical applications. Does not generate gas even under short circuit. Solid-state chemistry, limited short-circuit current, suitable only for low-current applications. Terminal voltage decreases with degree of discharge due to precipitation of lithium iodide Lithium iodide Lithium iodide, or LiI, is a compound of lithium and iodine. When exposed to air, it becomes yellow in color, due to the oxidation of iodide to iodine.-Applications:... . Low self-discharge.
Li-Ag₂CrO₄	Silver chromate Silver chromate Silver chromate is a brown-red monoclinic crystal and is a chemical precursor to modern photography. It can be formed by combining silver nitrate and potassium chromate...	Lithium perchlorate Lithium perchlorate Lithium perchlorate is the inorganic compound with the formula LiClO4. This white or colourless crystalline salt is noteworthy for its high solubility in many solvents. It exists both in anhydrous form and as a trihydrate.-Uses:... solution	3.1/2.6 V	3.45 V
Li-Ag₂CrO₄	Very high reliability. Has a 2.6 V plateau after reaching certain percentage of discharge, provides early warning of impending discharge. Developed specifically for medical applications, for example, implanted pacemakers Artificial pacemaker A pacemaker is a medical device that uses electrical impulses, delivered by electrodes contacting the heart muscles, to regulate the beating of the heart... .
Li-Ag₂V₄O₁₁, Li-SVO, Li-CSVO	Silver oxide+vanadium pentoxide (SVO)	lithium hexafluorophosphate Lithium hexafluorophosphate Lithium hexafluorophosphate is an inorganic compound with the formula LiPF6. This white crystalline powder is used in commercial secondary batteries, an application that exploits its high solubility in nonpolar solvents. Specifically, solutions of lithium hexafluorophosphate in propylene carbonate... or lithium hexafluoroarsenate in propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate is an organic compound, a cyclic carbonate of propylene glycol. This colorless and odorless liquid is useful as a polar, aprotic solvent... with dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane, also known as glyme, monoglyme, dimethyl glycol, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, dimethyl cellosolve, and DME, is a clear, colorless, aprotic, and liquid ether that is used as a solvent. Dimethoxyethane is miscible with water.Dimethoxyethane is often used as a higher boiling...
Li-Ag₂V₄O₁₁, Li-SVO, Li-CSVO	Used in medical applications, like implantable defibrillators, neurostimulators, and drug infusion systems. Also projected for use in other electronics, such as emergency locator transmitters. High energy density. Long shelf life. Capable of continuous operation at nominal temperature of 37 °C. Two-stage discharge with a plateau. Output voltage decreasing proportionally to the degree of discharge. Resistant to abuse. Addition of copper(II) oxide Copper(II) oxide Copper oxide or cupric oxide is the higher oxide of copper. As a mineral, it is known as tenorite.-Chemistry:It is a black solid with an ionic structure which melts above 1200 °C with some loss of oxygen... to the cathode material results in the Li-CSVO variant.
Li-CuO	Copper(II) oxide Copper(II) oxide Copper oxide or cupric oxide is the higher oxide of copper. As a mineral, it is known as tenorite.-Chemistry:It is a black solid with an ionic structure which melts above 1200 °C with some loss of oxygen...	Lithium Perchlorate dissolved in Dioxolane	1.5 V	2.4 V
Li-CuO	Can operate up to 150 °C. Developed as a replacement of zinc-carbon Zinc-carbon battery A zinc–carbon dry cell or battery is packaged in a zinc can that serves as both a container and negative terminal. It was developed from the wet Leclanché cell . The positive terminal is a carbon rod surrounded by a mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon powder. The electrolyte used is a paste of... and alkaline Alkaline battery Alkaline batteries are a type of primary batteries dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide . A rechargeable alkaline battery allows reuse of specially designed cells.... batteries. "Voltage up" problem, high difference between open-circuit and nominal voltage. Produced until mid-1990s, replaced by lithium-iron sulfide. Current use limited.
Li-Cu₄O(PO₄)₂	Copper oxyphosphate
Li-Cu₄O(PO₄)₂	See Li-CuO
Li-CuS	Copper sulfide Copper sulfide Copper sulfides describe a family of chemical compounds and minerals with the formula CuxSy. Both minerals and synthetic materials comprise these compounds. Some copper sulfides are economically important ores....		1.5 V
Li-PbCuS	Lead sulfide Lead sulfide Lead sulfide is an ionic compound of lead and sulfur, having two possible proportions:Lead sulfide, the ionic compound containing lead in the +2 oxidation stateLead sulfide, the ionic compound containing lead in the +4 oxidation state... and copper sulfide Copper sulfide Copper sulfides describe a family of chemical compounds and minerals with the formula CuxSy. Both minerals and synthetic materials comprise these compounds. Some copper sulfides are economically important ores....		1.5 V	2.2 V
Li-FeS	Iron sulfide Iron sulfide Iron sulfide or Iron sulphide refers to a chemical compound of iron and sulfur with a wide range of stoechiometric formulae and different crystalline structures.-Natural minerals:By increasing order of stability:...	Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate is an organic compound, a cyclic carbonate of propylene glycol. This colorless and odorless liquid is useful as a polar, aprotic solvent... , dioxolane Dioxolane Dioxolane is a heterocyclic acetal with the chemical formula 2O2CH2. It is related to tetrahydrofuran by interchange of one oxygen for a CH2 group. The corresponding saturated 6-membered C4O2 rings are called dioxanes. The isomeric 1,2-dioxolane is an peroxide... , dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane, also known as glyme, monoglyme, dimethyl glycol, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, dimethyl cellosolve, and DME, is a clear, colorless, aprotic, and liquid ether that is used as a solvent. Dimethoxyethane is miscible with water.Dimethoxyethane is often used as a higher boiling...	1.5-1.2 V
Li-FeS	"Lithium-iron", "Li/Fe". used as a replacement for alkaline batteries Alkaline battery Alkaline batteries are a type of primary batteries dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide . A rechargeable alkaline battery allows reuse of specially designed cells.... . See lithium — iron disulfide.
Li-FeS₂	Iron disulfide	Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate is an organic compound, a cyclic carbonate of propylene glycol. This colorless and odorless liquid is useful as a polar, aprotic solvent... , dioxolane Dioxolane Dioxolane is a heterocyclic acetal with the chemical formula 2O2CH2. It is related to tetrahydrofuran by interchange of one oxygen for a CH2 group. The corresponding saturated 6-membered C4O2 rings are called dioxanes. The isomeric 1,2-dioxolane is an peroxide... , dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane, also known as glyme, monoglyme, dimethyl glycol, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, dimethyl cellosolve, and DME, is a clear, colorless, aprotic, and liquid ether that is used as a solvent. Dimethoxyethane is miscible with water.Dimethoxyethane is often used as a higher boiling...	1.6-1.4 V	1.8 V	297
Li-FeS₂	"Lithium-iron", "Li/Fe". Used in Energizer lithium cells as a replacement for alkaline zinc-manganese chemistry. Called "voltage-compatible" lithiums. 2.5 times higher lifetime for high current discharge regime than alkaline batteries, better storage life due to lower self-discharge, 10 years storage time. FeS₂ is cheap. Cathode often designed as a paste of iron sulfide powder mixed with powdered graphite. Variant is Li-CuFeS₂.
Li-Bi₂Pb₂O₅	Lead bismuthate		1.5 V	1.8 V
Li-Bi₂Pb₂O₅	Replacement of silver-oxide batteries Silver-oxide battery A silver oxide battery , not to be confused with a similar but different silver–zinc battery, which is a secondary cell, is a primary cell with relatively very high energy/weight ratio. They are costly due to the high price of silver... , with higher energy density, lower tendency to leak, and better performance at higher temperatures.
Li-Bi₂O₃	Bismuth trioxide Bismuth trioxide Bismuth oxide is perhaps the most industrially important compound of bismuth. It is also a common starting point for bismuth chemistry. It is found naturally as the mineral bismite and sphaerobismoite , but it is usually obtained as a by-product of the smelting of copper and lead ores...		1.5 V	2.04 V
Li-V₂O₅	Vanadium pentoxide		3.3/2.4 V	3.4 V	120/260	300/660
Li-V₂O₅	Two discharge plateaus. Low-pressure. Rechargeable. Used in reserve batteries Reserve battery A reserve battery, also called stand-by battery, is a primary battery where part is isolated until the battery needs to be used. When long storage is required, reserve batteries are often used, since the active chemicals of the cell are segregated until needed, thus reducing self-discharge... .
Li-CoO₂	Cobalt dioxide
Li-CuCl₂	Copper chloride Copper chloride Copper forms two stable chlorides:Copper chloride , CuCl, mineral name nantokite.Copper chloride , CuCl2, mineral name eriochalcite....
Li-CuCl₂	Rechargeable.
Li/Al-MnO₂	Manganese dioxide
Li/Al-MnO₂	Rechargeable.
Li/Al-V₂O₅	Vanadium pentoxide
Li/Al-V₂O₅	Rechargeable.
Li-ion	carbon	liquid	3.6-3.7 V
Li-ion	Rechargeable. See lithium ion battery Lithium ion battery A lithium-ion battery is a family of rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge, and back when charging. Chemistry, performance, cost, and safety characteristics vary across LIB types... .
Li-poly	polymer	solid	3.7 V
Li-poly	Rechargeable. See lithium ion polymer battery Lithium ion polymer battery Lithium-ion polymer batteries, polymer lithium ion, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries are rechargeable batteries... .

The liquid organic electrolyte is a solution of an ion-forming inorganic lithium compound in a mixture of a high-permittivity

Permittivity

In electromagnetism, absolute permittivity is the measure of the resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a medium. In other words, permittivity is a measure of how an electric field affects, and is affected by, a dielectric medium. The permittivity of a medium describes how...

solvent propylene carbonate

Propylene carbonate

Propylene carbonate is an organic compound, a cyclic carbonate of propylene glycol. This colorless and odorless liquid is useful as a polar, aprotic solvent...

) and a low-viscosity

Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear or tensile stress. In everyday terms , viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity...

solvent (dimethoxyethane

Dimethoxyethane

Dimethoxyethane, also known as glyme, monoglyme, dimethyl glycol, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, dimethyl cellosolve, and DME, is a clear, colorless, aprotic, and liquid ether that is used as a solvent. Dimethoxyethane is miscible with water.Dimethoxyethane is often used as a higher boiling...

Applications

Lithium batteries find application in many long-life, critical devices, such as artificial pacemaker

Artificial pacemaker

A pacemaker is a medical device that uses electrical impulses, delivered by electrodes contacting the heart muscles, to regulate the beating of the heart...

s and other implantable electronic medical devices. These devices use specialized lithium-iodide batteries designed to last 15 or more years. But for other, less critical applications such as in toy

Toy

A toy is any object that can be used for play. Toys are associated commonly with children and pets. Playing with toys is often thought to be an enjoyable means of training the young for life in human society. Different materials are used to make toys enjoyable and cuddly to both young and old...

s, the lithium battery may actually outlast the device. In such cases, an expensive lithium battery may not be cost-effective.

Lithium batteries can be used in place of ordinary alkaline cells

Alkaline battery

Alkaline batteries are a type of primary batteries dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide . A rechargeable alkaline battery allows reuse of specially designed cells....

in many devices, such as clocks and cameras. Although they are more costly, lithium cells will provide much longer life, thereby minimizing battery replacement. However, attention must be given to the higher voltage developed by the lithium cells before using them as a drop-in replacement in devices that normally use ordinary zinc cells.

Sizes and formats

Small lithium batteries are very commonly used in small, portable electronic devices, such as PDAs

Personal digital assistant

A personal digital assistant , also known as a palmtop computer, or personal data assistant, is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. Current PDAs often have the ability to connect to the Internet...

, watches, camcorders, digital cameras, thermometers, calculators, laptop BIOS, communication equipment and remote car locks. They are available in many shapes and sizes, with a common
variety being the 3 volt "coin" type manganese variety, typically 20 mm in diameter and 1.6–4 mm thick.
The heavy electrical demands of many of these devices make lithium batteries a particularly attractive option.
In particular, lithium batteries can easily support the brief, heavy current demands of devices such as digital camera

Digital camera

A digital camera is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor. It is the main device used in the field of digital photography...

s, and they maintain a higher voltage for a longer period than alkaline cells.

Safety issues and regulation

The computer industry's drive to increase battery capacity can test the limits of sensitive components such as the membrane separator, a polyethylene or polypropylene film that is only 20-25 µm thick. The energy density of lithium batteries has more than doubled since they were introduced in 1991. When the battery is made to contain more material, the separator can undergo stress.

Ingestion and choking hazard

Button cell batteries are attractive to small children and often ingested. In the past 20 years, although there has not been an increase in the total number of button cell batteries ingested in a year, researchers have noted a 6.7-fold increase in the risk that an ingestion would result in a moderate or major complication. The primary mechanism of injury with button battery ingestions is the generation of hydroxide ions at the anode. The hydroxide ions result in a chemical burn. Complications include oesophageal strictures, tracheo-oesophageal fistulas, vocal cord paralysis, aorto-oesophageal fistulas, and death. The reasons for the increasing frequency of devastating complications is complex. Public and physician awareness is poor, and many products using button batteries are not child-proofed. In fact, 61.8% of batteries that were ingested by young children were obtained from products. The majority of ingestions are not witnessed; presentations are non-specific; battery voltage has increased; the 20 to 25 mm button battery size are more likely to become lodged at the cricopharyngeal junction; and severe tissue damage can occur in 2 hours. The 3 V, 20 mm lithium battery has been implicated in many of the complications from button battery ingestions by children less than 4 years of age. Button batteries can also cause significant necrotic injury when stuck in the nose or ears.

Rapid-discharge issues

Lithium batteries can provide extremely high currents and can discharge very rapidly when short-circuited. Although this is useful in applications where high currents are required, a too-rapid discharge of a lithium battery can result in overheating of the battery, rupture, and even explosion. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are particularly susceptible to this type of discharge. Consumer batteries usually incorporate over current or thermal protection or vents in order to prevent explosion.

Air travel

Because of the above risks, shipping and carriage of lithium batteries is restricted in some situations, particularly transport of lithium batteries by air.

The United States Transportation Security Administration

Transportation Security Administration

The Transportation Security Administration is an agency of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security that exercises authority over the safety and security of the traveling public in the United States....

announced restrictions effective January 1, 2008 on lithium batteries in checked and carry-on luggage. The rules forbid lithium batteries not installed in a device from checked luggage and restrict them in carry-on luggage by total lithium content.

Australia Post

Australia Post

Australia Post is the trading name of the Australian Government-owned Australian Postal Corporation .-History:...

prohibited transport of lithium batteries in air mail during 2010.

Lithium batteries and methamphetamine labs

Unused lithium batteries provide a convenient source of lithium metal for use as a reducing agent

Reducing agent

A reducing agent is the element or compound in a reduction-oxidation reaction that donates an electron to another species; however, since the reducer loses an electron we say it is "oxidized"...

in methamphetamine

Methamphetamine

Methamphetamine is a psychostimulant of the phenethylamine and amphetamine class of psychoactive drugs...

labs. Some jurisdictions have passed laws to restrict lithium battery sales or asked businesses to make voluntary restrictions in an attempt to help curb the creation of illegal meth labs

Clandestine chemistry

Clandestine chemistry is chemistry carried out in secret, and particularly in illegal drug laboratories. Larger labs are usually run by gangs or organized crime intending to produce for distribution on the black market...

. In 2004 Wal-Mart

Wal-Mart

Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. , branded as Walmart since 2008 and Wal-Mart before then, is an American public multinational corporation that runs chains of large discount department stores and warehouse stores. The company is the world's 18th largest public corporation, according to the Forbes Global 2000...

stores were reported to limit the sale of disposable lithium batteries to three packages in Missouri and four packages in other states. High demand for lithium batteries for use in power-hungry devices such as digital cameras has conflicted with such restrictions in stores.

Transportation

UK regulations for the transport of lithium batteries were amended by the National Chemical Emergency Centre

National Chemical Emergency Centre

The United Kingdom's National Chemical Emergency Centre is part of AEA Technology, and is based at the Harwell Science and Innovation Campus in Oxfordshire, England....

in 2009.

In late 2009, at least some postal administrations restricted airmail shipping (including EMS) of lithium batteries, lithium-ion batteries and products containing these ( such as laptops and cell phones). Among these countries are Hong Kong

Hong Kong

Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...

, USA and Japan

Japan

Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...