Literary Inquisition
Encyclopedia
Literary Inquisition (or Speech crime Chinese:以言入罪) refers to official persecution of intellectuals for their writings in Imperial China. Wénzìyù took place under each of the dynasties ruling China, although the Qing
was particularly notorious for the practise. Such persecutions could owe even to a single phrase or word which the ruler considered offensive. Some of these owed to the naming taboo
. In a serious case, not only the writer but also his immediate and extended families would be killed.
, and has been used by each of the succeeding dynasties ruling China. It is uncertain how frequently the persecutions occurred. The poet Su Shi
of the Song Dynasty
was jailed for several months by the emperor owing to some of his poems. In the bandit novel Water Margin
, which has its setting in the Song Dynasty, the leading character Song Jiang
, originally a petty official, became the head of a bandit group after he was sentenced to death for a poem he had written while drunk.
and the beginning of the period was the most severe. Before he became the first Ming emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang
was illiterate and had been a beggar. While he established his empire, he surrounded himself with scholars, treating them with respect while he learnt to read and familiarise himself with history. He sent out requests to scholars for their presence, and while many agreed others declined for fear of the repercussions if they made a mistake. On occasion the emperor, who was learning to read, would order the execution of someone who had written something he misunderstood.
; as such, they were sensitive to public feeling towards them. Writers and officials usually took the stance of drawing distinctions between the Chinese and the Manchus, who were viewed as a barbarian people. However, while the Manchus were in charge writers resorted to veiled satire. According to Ming Dong Gu, a specialist in Chinese literature and intellectual thought, the Qing became almost paranoid about the meanings associated with the Chinese characters for bright and clear, Ming and Qing respectively.
One inquisition was the "Case of the History of the Ming Dynasty" (明史案) in 1661–1662 under the direction of regent
s (before Emperor Kangxi came in power in 1669) in which about 70 were killed and more exiled.
Under the Qing, literary inquisition began with isolated cases in Shunzhi and Kangxi times, then evolved into a pattern. There were 53 cases of literary persecution during Emperor Ch'ien-Lung's
reign. Between 1772 and 1793, there was an effort by Ch'ien-Lung to purge "evil" books, poems, and plays. He set out to get rid of works by Ming loyalists whom he believed were writing subversive anti-Qing histories of the Manchu conquest. The scale of the destruction cause by this "literary holocaust" is uncertain due to gaps in the imperial archives, however as many as 3,000 works may have been lost. An estimated 151,723 volumes were destroyed by the inquisition in this period. Amongst the works subject to this treatment were books considered disrespectful towards Qing emperors or non-Chinese dynasties that could be viewed as analogous to the Qing. From 1780 onwards, plays could also be destroyed if they were vulgar or contained anti-Manchu material. Writers who criticised the Qing dynasty could expect to have their entire work erased, regardless of content. The inquisition was often used to express local ambitions and rivalries that had little to do with the ruler's own political interests. It thus generated interclass, as well as intraclass, warfare. For example, commoners could lay charges against scholars.
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
was particularly notorious for the practise. Such persecutions could owe even to a single phrase or word which the ruler considered offensive. Some of these owed to the naming taboo
Naming taboo
Naming taboo is a cultural taboo against speaking or writing the given names of exalted persons in China and neighboring nations in the ancient Chinese cultural sphere.-Kinds of naming taboo:...
. In a serious case, not only the writer but also his immediate and extended families would be killed.
Pre-Ming
The practise of literary persecution has been recorded since the Qin DynastyQin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
, and has been used by each of the succeeding dynasties ruling China. It is uncertain how frequently the persecutions occurred. The poet Su Shi
Su Shi
Su Shi , was a writer, poet, artist, calligrapher, pharmacologist, gastronome, and statesman of the Song Dynasty, and one of the major poets of the Song era. His courtesy name was Zizhan and his pseudonym was Dongpo Jushi , and he is often referred to as Su Dongpo...
of the Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
was jailed for several months by the emperor owing to some of his poems. In the bandit novel Water Margin
Water Margin
Water Margin , also known as Outlaws of the Marsh, All Men Are Brothers, Men of the Marshes, or The Marshes of Mount Liang, is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature.Attributed to Shi Nai'an and written in vernacular Chinese, the story, set in the Song Dynasty,...
, which has its setting in the Song Dynasty, the leading character Song Jiang
Song Jiang
Song Jiang was the leader of a group of outlaws who lived during the Song Dynasty. The outlaws were active in the present-day provinces of Shandong and Henan before their eventual surrender to the government. Song Jiang is also featured as a character in the Water Margin, one of the Four Great...
, originally a petty official, became the head of a bandit group after he was sentenced to death for a poem he had written while drunk.
Ming
There are records of literary persecutions during the Ming dynastyMing Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
and the beginning of the period was the most severe. Before he became the first Ming emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang
Hongwu Emperor
The Hongwu Emperor , known variably by his given name Zhu Yuanzhang and by his temple name Taizu of Ming , was the founder and first emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China...
was illiterate and had been a beggar. While he established his empire, he surrounded himself with scholars, treating them with respect while he learnt to read and familiarise himself with history. He sent out requests to scholars for their presence, and while many agreed others declined for fear of the repercussions if they made a mistake. On occasion the emperor, who was learning to read, would order the execution of someone who had written something he misunderstood.
Qing
Qing rulers are particularly notorious for their use of literary inquisitions. The Qing were an ethnic minority who had defeated the Ming dynastyMing Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
; as such, they were sensitive to public feeling towards them. Writers and officials usually took the stance of drawing distinctions between the Chinese and the Manchus, who were viewed as a barbarian people. However, while the Manchus were in charge writers resorted to veiled satire. According to Ming Dong Gu, a specialist in Chinese literature and intellectual thought, the Qing became almost paranoid about the meanings associated with the Chinese characters for bright and clear, Ming and Qing respectively.
One inquisition was the "Case of the History of the Ming Dynasty" (明史案) in 1661–1662 under the direction of regent
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
s (before Emperor Kangxi came in power in 1669) in which about 70 were killed and more exiled.
Under the Qing, literary inquisition began with isolated cases in Shunzhi and Kangxi times, then evolved into a pattern. There were 53 cases of literary persecution during Emperor Ch'ien-Lung's
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
reign. Between 1772 and 1793, there was an effort by Ch'ien-Lung to purge "evil" books, poems, and plays. He set out to get rid of works by Ming loyalists whom he believed were writing subversive anti-Qing histories of the Manchu conquest. The scale of the destruction cause by this "literary holocaust" is uncertain due to gaps in the imperial archives, however as many as 3,000 works may have been lost. An estimated 151,723 volumes were destroyed by the inquisition in this period. Amongst the works subject to this treatment were books considered disrespectful towards Qing emperors or non-Chinese dynasties that could be viewed as analogous to the Qing. From 1780 onwards, plays could also be destroyed if they were vulgar or contained anti-Manchu material. Writers who criticised the Qing dynasty could expect to have their entire work erased, regardless of content. The inquisition was often used to express local ambitions and rivalries that had little to do with the ruler's own political interests. It thus generated interclass, as well as intraclass, warfare. For example, commoners could lay charges against scholars.
- 1753: The Qianlong emperor's frequent tours of JiangnanJiangnanJiangnan or Jiang Nan is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of the Yangtze Delta...
were partly funded by local governments, and therefore indirectly by the local people. One local official by the name of Lu Lusen, using a higher ranking minister's name, Sun Jiajin, sent a memorial to Qianlong pleading with him to stop the tour for the sake of the local people. The text achieved widespread popular support. Eventually Lu Lusen was sentenced to death by slow slicing for sedition, his two sons were beheaded, and more than a thousand relatives and acquaintances were either executed, exiled, or thrown into jail according to the notion of "collective responsibility" that automatically applied in cases of sedition.
- 1755: A Provincial Education Commissioner named Hu Zhongzao (胡中藻) wrote a poem in which the character qing 清, the name of the dynasty, was preceded by zhuo 浊, which means "murky or muddy." The Qianlong emperor saw this and many other formulations as the taking of a position in the factional struggle that was taking place at the time between Han official Zhang Tingyu and Manchu official Ertai, who had been Hu's mentor. Hu was eventually beheaded.
- 1778: The son of a Jiangsu poet called Xu Shukui (徐述夔) had written a poem to celebrate his late father. Qianlong decided that the poem was derogatory towards the Manchus, and ordered that Xu Shukui's coffin be unearthed, his corpse mutilated, all his children and grandchildren beheaded.
- Cai Xian (蔡顯) wrote a poem 'Any color not true color but red color, alien flowers has become king flowers', to show that he preferred red colored peonies over purple peonies, and stating 'red peony is king peony' and 'Other color peonies are aliens'. In Chinese, 'red' and the surname of late Ming dynasty emperors shared the same character: 朱 (zhū). Qianlong then accused the poet of trying to attack the Manchus by innuendo and ordered the beheading of the poet.
Further reading
- Zhongguo da baike quanshuEncyclopedia of ChinaThe Encyclopedia of China is the first large-entry modern encyclopedia in the Chinese language. The compilation began at 1978. Published by the Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, the encyclopedia was issued one volume at a time, beginning in 1980 with a volume on astronomy; the final volume...
. First Edition. Beijing; Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe. 1980-1993.