List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

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Chronology and major themes

• In 1905, Einstein developed the theory of special relativity
  Special relativity
  
  Special relativity is the physical theory of measurement in inertial frames of reference proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in the paper "Annus Mirabilis Papers#Special relativity"....
  , which reconciled the relativity of motion
  Galilean invariance
  
  Galilean invariance or Galilean relativity is a principle of relativity which states that the fundamental physical law are the same in all inertial frames....
   with the observed constancy of the speed of light
  Speed of light
  
  The speed of light in an free space is an important physical constant usually written as c, with a value of 299,792,458 metres per second....
   (a paradox of 19th-century physics). Special relativity is now a core principle of physics. Its counterintuitive predictions that moving clocks run more slowly
  Time dilation
  
  Time dilation is the phenomenon whereby an observer finds that another's clock, which is physically identical to their own, is ticking at a slower rate as measured by their own clock....
  , that moving objects are shortened in their direction of motion
  Length contraction
  
  Length contraction, according to Hendrik Lorentz, is the physical phenomenon of a decrease in length detected by an observer in objects that travel at any non-zero velocity relative to that observer....
  , and that the order of events is not absolute
  Relativity of simultaneity
  
  The relativity of simultaneity is the concept that simultaneity is not absolute, but dependent on the observer. That is, according to the special theory of relativity formulated by Albert Einstein in 1905, it is impossible to say in an absolute sense whether two events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space....
   have been confirmed experimentally. Its relation E=mc² suggested that matter
  Matter
  
  In common usage, matter is anything that has both mass and volume . A more rigorous definition is used in science: matter is what atoms and molecules are made of....
   was a form of energy
  Energy
  
  In physics, energy is a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of Work_ that can be performed by a force. Energy is an attribute of objects and systems that is subject to a conservation law....
  , which was later verified by the mass defect in atomic nuclei
  Atomic nucleus
  
  The nucleus of an atom is the very dense region, consisting of nucleons , at the center of an atom. Although the size of the nucleus varies considerably according to the mass of the atom, the size of the entire atom is comparatively constant....
  . The energy
  Nuclear energy
  
  Nuclear energy is released by the splitting or merging together of the Atomic nucleus of atom. The conversion of nuclear mass to energy is consistent with the mass-energy equivalence formula ?E = ?m.c?, in which ?E = energy release, ?m = mass defect, and c = the speed of light in a vacuum ....
   released in nuclear reaction
  Nuclear reaction
  
  In nuclear physics, a nuclear reaction is the process in which two atomic nucleus or subatomic particles collide to produce products different from the initial particles....
  s—which is essential for nuclear power
  Nuclear power
  
  Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from atomic nucleus via controlled nuclear reactions. The only method in use today is through nuclear fission, though other methods might one day include nuclear fusion and radioactive decay ....
   and nuclear weapon
  Nuclear weapon
  
  A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either nuclear fission or a combination of fission and nuclear fusion....
  s—can be estimated from such mass defects.

• Likewise in 1905, Einstein developed a theory of Brownian motion
  Brownian motion
  
  Brownian motion is the seemingly random movement of particles suspended in a liquid or gas or the mathematical model used to describe such random movements, often called a particle theory....
   in terms of fluctuations in the number of molecular collisions with an object, providing further evidence that matter was composed of atom
  Atom
  
  |-! bgcolor=gray | Properties|-||}The atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of a dense, central atomic nucleus surrounded by a electron cloud of electric charge electrons....
  s. A few weeks earlier, he had derived the Einstein relation
  Einstein relation (kinetic theory)
  
  In physics the Einstein relation is a previously unexpected connection revealed independently by Albert Einstein in 1905 and by Marian Smoluchowski in their papers on Brownian motion:...
   for diffusion
  Diffusion
  
  Molecular diffusion, often called simply diffusion, is a net transport of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration by random molecular motion....
  , which was the first example of the general fluctuation-dissipation theorem and allowed a good estimate of the Avogadro constant.

• Also in 1905, Einstein proposed the existence of the photon
  Photon
  
  In physics, the photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field and the basic unit of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation....
  , an elementary particle
  Elementary particle
  
  In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a wiktionary:particle not known to have substructure; that is, it is not known to be made up of smaller particles....
   associated with electromagnetic radiation
  Electromagnetic radiation
  
  Electromagnetic radiation takes the form of wave propagation waves in a vacuum or in matter. EM radiation has an electric field and magnetic field component which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and to the direction of energy Wave propagation....
   (light), which was the foundation of quantum theory
  Quantum theory
  
  Quantum theory may mean:In science:* Old quantum theory under the Bohr model* Quantum mechanics, an umbrella term sometimes for all of quantum physics, but sometimes for just non-relativistic theories...
  . In 1909, Einstein showed that the photon carries momentum
  Momentum
  
  In classical mechanics, momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object . For more accurate measures of momentum, see the section Momentum#Modern definitions of momentum on this page....
   as well as energy
  Energy
  
  In physics, energy is a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of Work_ that can be performed by a force. Energy is an attribute of objects and systems that is subject to a conservation law....
   and that electromagnetic radiation must have both particle-like and wave-like properties if Planck's law holds; this was a forerunner of the principle of wave-particle duality.

• In 1907 and again in 1911, Einstein developed the first quantum theory
  Einstein solid
  
  The Einstein solid is a model of a solid based on three assumptions:* Each atom in the lattice is a 3D quantum harmonic oscillator* Atoms do not interact with each other...
   of specific heats by generalizing Planck's law. His theory resolved a paradox of 19th-century physics
  Equipartition theorem
  
  In classical physics statistical mechanics, the equipartition theorem is a general formula that relates the temperature of a system with its average energy....
   that specific heats were often smaller than could be explained by any classical theory
  Classical physics
  
  Classical physics is a general term used to describe the branches of physics based on principles developed before the rise of general theory of relativity and Quantum mechanics, usually including special theory of relativity....
  . His work was also the first to show that Planck's
  Max Planck
  
  Karl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck, better known as Max Planck was a Germany physicist. He is considered to be the founder of the Quantum mechanics, and one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century....
   quantum mechanical law
  Quantum mechanics
  
  Quantum mechanics is a set of principles underlying the most fundamental known description of all physical systems at the microscopic scale . Notable amongst these principles are both a dual wave-like and particle-like behavior of matter and radiation, and prediction of probabilities in situations where classical physics predicts certaintie...
   E=h? was a fundamental law of physics, and not merely special to blackbody radiation.

• Between 1907 and 1915, Einstein developed the theory of general relativity
  General relativity
  
  General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the Geometry Theoretical physics of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916....
  , a classical field theory of gravitation
  Gravitation
  
  Gravitation is a natural phenomenon that gives weight to objects. In everyday life, attraction due to gravity is the result of the presence of relatively large bodies, such as the Earth and the Moon....
   that provides the cornerstone for modern astrophysics
  Astrophysics
  
  Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of astronomical objects such as galaxy, stars, planets, exoplanets, and the interstellar medium, as well as their interactions....
   and cosmology
  Cosmology
  
  Cosmology is study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity's place in it. Though the word cosmology is recent , study of the Universe has a long history involving science, philosophy, esotericism, and religion....
  . General relativity is based on the surprising idea that time
  Time
  
  Time is a component of the measurement used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects....
   and space
  Space
  
  Space is the boundless, three-dimensional extent in which Physical body and events occur and have relative position and direction. Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physics usually consider it, with time, to be part of the boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime....
   dynamically interact with matter
  Matter
  
  In common usage, matter is anything that has both mass and volume . A more rigorous definition is used in science: matter is what atoms and molecules are made of....
   and energy
  Energy
  
  In physics, energy is a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of Work_ that can be performed by a force. Energy is an attribute of objects and systems that is subject to a conservation law....
  , and has been checked experimentally
  Tests of general relativity
  
  At its introduction in 1915, the general relativity did not have a solid empirical foundation. It was known that it correctly accounted for the "anomalous" precession of the perihelion of Mercury and on philosophical grounds it was considered satisfying that it was able to unify Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation with special relativity....
   in many ways, confirming its predictions of matter affecting the flow of time
  Gravitational time dilation
  
  Gravitational time dilation is the effect of time passing at different rates in regions of different gravitational potential; the higher the local distortion of spacetime due to gravity, the more slowly time passes....
  , frame dragging, black hole
  Black hole
  
  In general relativity, a black hole is a region of space in which the gravitational field is so powerful that nothing, including electromagnetic radiation , can escape its pull after having fallen past its event horizon....
  s, and gravitational wave
  Gravitational wave
  
  In physics, a gravitational wave is a fluctuation in the curvature of spacetime which propagates as a wave#Traveling wave, traveling outward from a moving object or system of objects....
  s.

• In 1917, Einstein published the idea for the Einstein-Brillouin-Keller method
  Einstein-Brillouin-Keller method
  
  The Einstein-Brillouin-Keller method is a semiclassical method to compute eigenvalues in quantum mechanical systems....
   for finding the quantum mechanical
  Quantum mechanics
  
  Quantum mechanics is a set of principles underlying the most fundamental known description of all physical systems at the microscopic scale . Notable amongst these principles are both a dual wave-like and particle-like behavior of matter and radiation, and prediction of probabilities in situations where classical physics predicts certaintie...
   version of a classical system. The famous Bohr model
  Bohr model
  
  In atomic physics, the Bohr model created by Niels Bohr depicts the atom as a small, positively charged atomic nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus—similar in structure to the solar system, but with electrostatic forces providing attraction, rather than gravity....
   of the hydrogen atom is a simple example, but the EBK method also gives accurate predictions for more complicated systems, such as the dinuclear cations H₂⁺ and HeH²⁺.

• In 1918, Einstein developed a general theory of the process by which atoms emit and absorb electromagnetic radiation (his A and B coefficients
  Atomic spectral line
  
  In physics, atomic spectral lines are of two types:* An emission line is formed when an electron makes a transition from a particular discrete energy level of an atom, to a lower energy state, emitting a photon of a particular energy and wavelength....
  ), which is the basis of laser
  Laser
  
  A laser is a device that emits light through a process called stimulated emission. The term laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation....
  s (stimulated emission
  Stimulated emission
  
  In optics, stimulated emission is the process by which an electron, perturbed by a photon having the correct energy, may drop to a lower energy level resulting in the creation of another photon....
  ) and shaped the development of modern quantum electrodynamics
  Quantum electrodynamics
  
  Quantum electrodynamics is a relativity theory quantum field theory of electrodynamics. QED was developed by a number of physicists, beginning in the late 1920s....
  , the best-validated physical theory at present.

• In 1924, together with Satyendra Nath Bose
  Satyendra Nath Bose
  
  Satyendra Nath Bose , Fellow of the Royal Society, was an Indian physicist from the state of West Bengal, specializing in mathematical physics....
  , Einstein developed the theory of Bose-Einstein statistics and Bose-Einstein condensates, which form the basis for superfluidity, superconductivity
  Superconductivity
  
  Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring in certain materials generally at very low temperatures, characterized by exactly zero electrical resistance and the exclusion of the interior magnetic field ....
  , and other phenomena.

• In 1935, together with Boris Podolsky
  Boris Podolsky
  
  Boris Podolsky born in 1896, Taganrog, Russia - died 1966, United States), was a Russia physicist....
   and Nathan Rosen
  Nathan Rosen
  
  Nathan Rosen Born into a Jewish family was an Israeli physicist.Nathan Rosen attended MIT. In 1935 he became Albert Einstein's assistant at The Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey and continued in that position until 1945....
  , Einstein described the EPR paradox
  EPR paradox
  
  In quantum mechanics, the EPR paradox is a thought experiment which challenged long-held ideas about the relation between the observed values of physical quantities and the values that can be accounted for by a physical theory....
  , which clarified the nonlocal nature of measurement
  Measurement in quantum mechanics
  
  The framework of quantum mechanics requires a careful definition of measurement, and a thorough discussion of its practical and philosophical implications....
   in quantum mechanics
  Quantum mechanics
  
  Quantum mechanics is a set of principles underlying the most fundamental known description of all physical systems at the microscopic scale . Notable amongst these principles are both a dual wave-like and particle-like behavior of matter and radiation, and prediction of probabilities in situations where classical physics predicts certaintie...
  .

• In the final thirty years of his life, Einstein explored whether various classical unified field theories
  Classical unified field theories
  
  Since the 1800s, some physicists have attempted to develop a single theoretical framework that can account for the fundamental forces of nature ? a unified field theory....
   could account for both electromagnetism
  Electromagnetism
  
  Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field, a field which exerts a force on Elementary particles with the property of electric charge and which is reciprocally affected by the presence and motion of such particles....
   and gravitation and, possibly, quantum mechanics. However, his efforts were unsuccessful, since those theories did not match experimental observations.

See also

• Einstein Papers Project
  Einstein Papers Project
  
  The Einstein Papers Project was established in 1986 to assemble, preserve, translate and publish papers selected from the Literary executor of Albert Einstein and from other collections ....
  
• History of special relativity
  History of special relativity
  
  The history of special relativity consists of many theoretical and empirical results of physicists like Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincar?, which culminated in the theory of special relativity proposed by Albert Einstein, and subsequent work of physicists like Hermann Minkowski....
  
• History of general relativity
  History of general relativity
  
  Creation of General Relativity...
  
• History of the Big Bang theory
• History of quantum mechanics
  History of quantum mechanics
  
  The history of quantum mechanics as this interlaces with history of quantum chemistry began essentially with the 1838 discovery of cathode rays by Michael Faraday, during the 1859-1860 winter statement of the black body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff, the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical s...
  
• History of thermodynamics
  History of thermodynamics
  
  The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general....
  

Bibliography

External links

• from the Einstein website
• at the California Institute of Technology
  California Institute of Technology
  
  The California Institute of Technology is a private university research university located in Pasadena, California, United States. Caltech maintains a strong emphasis on the natural sciences and engineering....
  
• at Hebrew University