Book of Optics — Ibn al-Haytham
Description: The
Book of OpticsThe Book of Optics was a seven-volume treatise on optics, physics, mathematics, anatomy and psychology written by the Iraqi Muslim scientist, Ibn al-Haytham , from 1011 to 1021, when he was under house arrest in Cairo, Egypt.The book...
(
ArabicArabic is a Central Semitic language, thus related to and classified alongside other Semitic languages such as Hebrew and the Neo-Aramaic languages. In terms of speakers, the Arabic macrolanguage is the largest member of the Semitic language family. It is spoken by more than 280 million people as...
:
Kitab al-Manazir,
LatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe...
:
De Aspectibus) is a seven volume treatise on
opticsOptics is the branch of physics which studies the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light...
and
physicsPhysics is a natural science; it is the study of matter and its motion through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force...
, written by the
IraqIraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , also known as Mesopotamia, is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.Iraq shares borders with Jordan to the west, Syria...
i
ArabArab people or Arabs are an ethnic group whose members identify along linguistic, cultural or genealogical grounds...
Muslim scientistScience in medieval Islam, also known as Islamic science, is a term used in the history of science to refer to the science developed in the Islamic world between the 7th and 16th centuries, a period also known as the Islamic Golden Age. Scientists from the region were also known to develop many...
Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as
Alhacen or
Alhazen in
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
), and published in 1021, when he was under
house arrestIn justice and law, house arrest is a measure by which a person is confined by the authorities to his or her residence. Travel is usually restricted, if allowed at all...
in
CairoCairo is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab World. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a center of the region's political and cultural life...
,
EgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia...
. The book had an important influence on the development of optics, and
scienceScience is in its broadest sense to any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice that is capable of resulting in a prediction or predictable type of outcome...
in general, as it drastically transformed the understanding of
lightLight is electromagnetic radiation, particularly radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye ....
and
visionVisual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight or vision...
, and introduced the
experimentIn scientific research, an experiment is a method of investigating causal relationships among variables, or to test a hypothesis. An experiment is a cornerstone of the empirical approach to acquiring data about the world and is used in both natural sciences and social sciences...
al
scientific methodScientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific...
. As a result, Ibn al-Haytham has been described as the "father of optics", the "pioneer of the modern scientific method", and the "first
scientistA scientist, in the broadest sense, is any person who engages in a systematic activity to acquire knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices and traditions that are linked to schools of thought or philosophy. In a more restricted sense, a scientist is an individual who uses the...
". The
Book of Optics has been ranked alongside
Isaac NewtonSir Isaac Newton FRS was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian who is perceived and considered by a substantial number of scholars and the general public as one of the most influential men in history...
's
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia MathematicaThe Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Latin for "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", often Principia or Principia Mathematica for short, is a work in three books by Isaac Newton, first published on 5 July 1687. Newton also published two further editions, the second in 1713,...
as one of the most influential books ever written in the
history of physicsAs forms of science historically developed out of philosophy, physics was originally referred to as natural philosophy, a term describing a field of study concerned with "the workings of nature".-Early history:...
.
Traité de la Lumiere (A Treatise on Light) — Christiaan Huygens
- Christiaan Huygens
Christiaan Huygens, FRS was a prominent Dutch mathematician, astronomer, physicist, horologist, and writer of early science fiction...
- A Treatise on Light
Huygens' treatise on light was not appreciated in its time until much later due to the mistaken zeal with which formerly everything that conflicted with the cherished ideas of Newton was denounced by his followers. Despite that, Huygens attained a remarkably clear understanding of the principles of wave-propagation; and his exposition of the subject marks an epoch in the treatment of Optical problems.
Papers on optical phenomena — Augustin-Jean Fresnel
- Augustin-Jean Fresnel
Augustin-Jean Fresnel , was a French physicist who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics...
- Papers on optical phenomena
Work by Thomas Young and Fresnel provided a comprehensive picture of the propagation of light.
The Frequency comb papers
- "Measuring the Frequency of Light with Mode-Locked Lasers" J.Reichert, R.Holzwarth, Th.Udem, and T.W.Hänsch
Theodor Wolfgang Hänsch is a German physicist. He received one fourth of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics for "contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique", sharing the prize with John L. Hall and Roy J...
, Opt. Commun. 172, 59 (1999).
- "Optical Frequency Metrology", Th.Udem, R.Holzwarth, and T.W.Hänsch
Theodor Wolfgang Hänsch is a German physicist. He received one fourth of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics for "contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique", sharing the prize with John L. Hall and Roy J...
,
Nature 416, 233 (2002).
Description: The
Frequency combA frequency comb is the graphic representation of the spectrum of a mode locked laser. An octave spanning comb can be used for mapping radio frequencies into the optical frequency range or it can be used to steer a piezoelectric mirror within a carrier envelope phase correcting feedback loop...
technique was presented in few papers. The earlier presented the main idea but last is the one often cited.
Importance:
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical principles of natural philosophy) – Isaac Newton
- Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton FRS was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian who is perceived and considered by a substantial number of scholars and the general public as one of the most influential men in history...
Description: The
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia MathematicaThe Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Latin for "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", often Principia or Principia Mathematica for short, is a work in three books by Isaac Newton, first published on 5 July 1687. Newton also published two further editions, the second in 1713,...
(
LatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe...
: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy", often
Principia or
Principia Mathematica for short) is a three-volume work by
Isaac NewtonSir Isaac Newton FRS was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian who is perceived and considered by a substantial number of scholars and the general public as one of the most influential men in history...
published on July 5, 1687. One of the most influential scientific books ever published, it contains the statement of
Newton's laws of motionNewton's laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis for classical mechanics. They are:# In the absence of force, a body either is at rest or moves in a straight line with constant speed....
forming the foundation of
classical mechanicsIn the fields of physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of study in the science of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws governing and mathematically describing the motions of bodies and aggregates of bodies geometrically distributed within a certain...
as well as his law of universal gravitation. He derives Kepler's laws for the motion of the
planetA planet , is a celestial body orbiting a star or stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.The term planet is ancient, with ties to history, science,...
s (which were first obtained empirically).
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
Méchanique Analytique (Analytical mechanics) — Joseph Louis Lagrange
- Joseph Louis Lagrange
Joseph-Louis Lagrange, born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia was an Italian-born mathematician and astronomer, who lived most of his life in Prussia and France, making significant contributions to all fields of analysis, to number theory, and to classical and celestial mechanics...
(1788)
Description: Lagrange's masterpiece on mechanics and hydrodynamics. Based largely on the
calculus of variationsCalculus of variations is a field of mathematics that deals with functionals, as opposed to ordinary calculus which deals with functions. Such functionals can for example be formed as integrals involving an unknown function and its derivatives...
, this work introduced
Lagrangian mechanicsLagrangian mechanics is a re-formulation of classical mechanics that combines conservation of momentum with conservation of energy. It was introduced by Italian mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788...
including the notion of
virtual workVirtual work on a system is the work resulting from either virtual forces acting through a real displacement or real forces acting through a virtual displacement. In this discussion, the term displacement may refer to a translation or a rotation, and the term force to a force or a moment. When the...
,
generalized coordinatesBy deriving equations of motion in terms of a general set of generalized coordinates, the results found will be valid for any coordinate system that is ultimately specified." The name is a holdover from a period when Cartesian coordinates were the standard system.-Independent generalized...
, and the
LagrangianThe Lagrangian, L, of a dynamical system is a function that summarizes the dynamics of the system. It is named after Joseph Louis Lagrange. The concept of a Lagrangian was originally introduced in a reformulation of classical mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics. In classical mechanics, the...
. Lagrange also further developed the
principle of least actionIn physics, the principle of least action or more accurately principle of stationary action is a variational principle which, when applied to the action of a mechanical system, can be used to obtain the equations of motion for that system...
and introduced the
Lagrangian reference frameIn fluid dynamics and finite-deformation plasticity the Lagrangian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion where the observer follows an individual fluid parcel as it moves through space and time. Plotting the position of an individual parcel through time gives the...
for fluid flow.
Classical Mechanics — Herbert Goldstein
- Herbert Goldstein
Herbert Goldstein was an American physicist and the author of the standard graduate textbook Classical Mechanics.He received a B.S. from City College of New York in 1940 and a Ph.D...
Description: A standard undergraduate textbook on classical mechanics, considered a good book on the subject.
Importance: Introduction
Special theory of relativity
Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper (On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies) — Albert Einstein
- Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist. His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity, the founding of relativistic cosmology, the first post-Newtonian expansion, explaining the perihelion advance of Mercury, prediction of the deflection of...
- Annalen der Physik
Annalen der Physik is one of the best-known and oldest physics journals worldwide.The journal publishes original papers in the areas of experimental, theoretical, applied and mathematical physics and related areas...
. June 30, 1905
- On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper (German original)
Description: Special relativity, developed in 1905, only considers observers in inertial reference frames which are in uniform motion with respect to each other. Einstein's paper that year was called "
On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". While developing this theory, Einstein wrote to Mileva (his wife) about "our work on relative motion". This paper introduced the special theory of relativity, a theory of time, distance, mass and energy. The theory postulates that the
speed of lightIn physics, the speed of light is a physical constant, the speed at which electromagnetic radiation, such as light, travels in free space . Its value is 299,792,458 metres per second...
in vacuum will be the same for these observers. Special relativity solved the puzzle that had been apparent since the
Michelson-Morley experimentThe Michelson–Morley experiment was performed in 1887 by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley at what is now Case Western Reserve University. It is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against the theory of a luminiferous aether...
, which had failed to show that light waves were travelling through any
mediumIn the late 19th century, "luminiferous aether" , meaning light-bearing aether, was the term used to describe a medium for the propagation of light. The word aether stems via Latin from the Greek αιθήρ, from a root meaning to kindle, burn, or shine...
(other known waves travelled through media - such as water or air). It had been suggested that light waves actually did not travel through any medium: the speed of light was thus fixed, and not relative to the movement of the observer. This was impossible under Newtonian classical mechanics however, and Einstein provided a new system which allowed for this.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
The Theory of Relativity — Ludwik Silberstein
- Ludwik Silberstein
Ludwik Silberstein was a Polish-American physicist that helped make special relativity and general relativity staples of university coursework...
- Cambridge University Press, 1914
Description: This pioneering textbook drew together the now well-known developments of
H.A.Lorentz, A. Einstein, and H. Minkowski. It uses concepts developed in the then-
current textbooks (e.g.
Vector Analysis (Gibbs/Wilson)Vector Analysis is a book on vector calculus first published in 1901 by Edwin Bidwell Wilson. Its subtitle is "A Text-book for the use of students of mathematics and physics, founded upon the lectures of J. Willard Gibbs Ph.D. LL.D." This textbook did much to standardize vocabulary and notations...
and Bonola: Non-Euclidean Geometry) to
provide entry into mathematical physics including a vector-based introduction to
quaternions and a primer on matrix notation for linear transformations of 4-vectors. The
ten chapters are composed of 4 on kinematics, 3 on quaternion methods, and 3 on
electromagnetism. The second edition published in 1924 extended relativity into
gravitation theory with tensor methods, but was superseded by Eddington's text.
The book has a conversational style and embellished with appropriate footnotes. While
the mathematics is generally well adapted to the text, there is an erroneous expression
given for the quaternionic representation of Lorentz transformations. The expression
should have the form of an
inner automorphismIn abstract algebra, an inner automorphism of a group G is a functiondefined bywhere a is a given fixed element of G.The operation axa−1 is called conjugation . Informally, in a conjugation a certain operation is applied, then another one is carried out, and then the initial operation...
but Silberstein inexplicably uses the
expression Q[]Q , failing to supply one of the Q's with a − 1 exponent. The
actual technique in geometric arithmetic comes about with
inversive ring geometryIn mathematics, inversive ring geometry is the extension to the context of associative rings, of the concepts of projective line, homogeneous coordinates, projective transformations, and cross-ratio, concepts usually built upon rings that happen to be fields....
applied to
biquaternionThe biquaternions are the numbers where w, x, y, and z are complex numbers and the elements of {1, i, j, k} multiply as in the quaternion group...
s.
Importance: Influence
Spacetime Physics — Edwin F. Taylor and John Archibald Wheeler
- Edwin F. Taylor
Edwin F. Taylor is an American physicist known for his contributions to the teaching of physics. Taylor was editor of the American Journal of Physics, and is author of several introductory books to physics...
, John Archibald WheelerJohn Archibald Wheeler was an eminent American theoretical physicist. One of the later collaborators of Albert Einstein, he tried to achieve Einstein's vision of a unified field theory...
- W. H. Freeman (2nd edition 1992) ISBN 0716723271
Description: A modern introduction to special relativity, that explains well how the choice to divide spacetime into a time part and a space part is no different than two choices about how to assign coordinates to the surface of the earth. Suitable for self-study.
Importance: Introduction
General theory of relativity
Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity) — Albert Einstein
- Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist. His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity, the founding of relativistic cosmology, the first post-Newtonian expansion, explaining the perihelion advance of Mercury, prediction of the deflection of...
- Annalen der Physik
Annalen der Physik is one of the best-known and oldest physics journals worldwide.The journal publishes original papers in the areas of experimental, theoretical, applied and mathematical physics and related areas...
. , 1916
- The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity, Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (German original)
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
The Mathematical Theory of Relativity — Arthur Stanley Eddington
- Arthur Stanley Eddington
Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, OM, FRS was a British astrophysicist of the early 20th century. The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour.He is famous for his work regarding the Theory of...
- Cambridge University Press, 1923, 1924
Description: This textbook is a tour-de-force of tensor calculus, developed in Chapter II. By page 83
he has deduced the
Schwarzschild metricIn Einstein's theory of general relativity, the Schwarzschild solution describes the gravitational field outside a spherical, non-rotating mass such as a star, planet, or black hole. It is also a good approximation to the gravitational field of a slowly rotating body like the Earth or Sun...
for the domain of events around an isolated
massive particle. By page 92 he has explained the advance of the perihelion of the planets,
the deflection of light, and displacement of Fraunhofer lines. Electromagnetism is
relegated to Chapter VI (pp. 170–195), and later (p. 223) The bifurcation of geometry and
electrodynamics.
This text, with its ambitious development of pseudo-Riemannian geometry for
gravitational theory, set an austere standard with relativity enthusiasts. Gone is any
mention of quaternions or hyperbolic geometry since tensor calculus subsumes them.
Thus for learning the mechanics of modern relativity this text still serves, but for
motivation and context of the special theory, Silberstein is better.
Importance: Influence
Gravitation — Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler
- Charles W. Misner
Charles W. Misner is an American physicist and one of the authors of Gravitation. His specialties include general relativity and cosmology. His work has also provided early foundations for studies of quantum gravity and numerical relativity....
, Kip S. ThorneKip Stephen Thorne is an American theoretical physicist, known for his prolific contributions in gravitation physics and astrophysics and for having trained a generation of scientists...
, and John Archibald WheelerJohn Archibald Wheeler was an eminent American theoretical physicist. One of the later collaborators of Albert Einstein, he tried to achieve Einstein's vision of a unified field theory...
- W. H. Freeman, 1973
Description: A book on gravitation (often considered the "Bible" by researchers for its prominence) by
MisnerCharles W. Misner is an American physicist and one of the authors of Gravitation. His specialties include general relativity and cosmology. His work has also provided early foundations for studies of quantum gravity and numerical relativity....
,
ThorneKip Stephen Thorne is an American theoretical physicist, known for his prolific contributions in gravitation physics and astrophysics and for having trained a generation of scientists...
, and
WheelerJohn Archibald Wheeler was an eminent American theoretical physicist. One of the later collaborators of Albert Einstein, he tried to achieve Einstein's vision of a unified field theory...
. Published by W.H. Freeman and Company in 1973. A massive tome of over 1200 pages, the book covers all aspects of the General Theory of Relativity and also considers some extensions and experimental confirmation. The book is divided into two "tracks", the second of which covers more advanced topics.
Importance: Introduction, Influence
A First Course in General Relativity — Bernard F. Schutz
- Bernard F. Schutz
Bernard F. Schutz is an American physicist. His research is on Einstein's theory of general relativity, more concretely: on the physics of gravitational waves. He is one of the directors and head of the astrophysics group at the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics in Potsdam, Germany...
- Cambridge University Press, 1985
Description: A book on the Theory of General Relativity that is suitable for a year-long undergraduate course on the subject that can also stand as a semester-long course for graduate students.
Importance: Introduction
On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum — Max Planck
Description: In
physicsPhysics is a natural science; it is the study of matter and its motion through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force...
, the intensity spectrum of
electromagnetic radiationElectromagnetic radiation is a ubiquitous phenomenon that takes the form of self-propagating waves in a vacuum or in matter. It consists of electric and magnetic field components which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation...
from a
black bodyIn physics, a black body is an idealized object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that falls on it. No electromagnetic radiation passes through it and none is reflected. Because no light is reflected or transmitted, the object appears black when it is cold. However, a black body emits a...
at temperature
T is given by the
Planck's law of black body radiation:
where:
- ν is the frequency
- I(ν) is the amount of energy
In physics, energy is a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of work that can be performed by a force, an attribute of objects and systems that is subject to a conservation law...
per unit timeTime is a component of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects...
per unit surfaceIn mathematics, specifically in topology, a surface is a two-dimensional topological manifold. The most familiar examples are those that arise as the boundaries of solid objects in ordinary three-dimensional Euclidean space R
3 — for example, the surface of a ball...
per unit solid angleThe solid angle, Ω, is the two-dimensional angle in three-dimensional space that an object subtends at a point. It is a measure of how large that object appears to an observer looking from that point. A small object nearby may subtend the same solid angle as a larger object farther away...
emitted in the frequency range between ν and ν+δν [W m-2 Hz-1 sr-1];
- h is Planck's constant,:
- c is the speed of light
In physics, the speed of light is a physical constant, the speed at which electromagnetic radiation, such as light, travels in free space . Its value is 299,792,458 metres per second...
and
- k is Boltzmann's constant.
Max PlanckMax Planck was a German physicist. He is considered to be the founder of the quantum theory, and thus one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.-Biography:Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family...
originally produced this law in 1900 (published in 1901) in an attempt to interpolate between the
Rayleigh-Jeans lawIn physics, the Rayleigh–Jeans Law, first proposed in the early 20th century, attempts to describe the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths from a black body at a given temperature through classical arguments. For wavelength , it is;where c is the speed of light, k is...
(which worked at long
wavelengthIn physics, the wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wave – the distance over which the wave's shape repeats.It is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests, troughs, or zero crossings, and is a...
s) and
Wien's lawWien's law or Wien law may refer to:* Wien approximation, an equation used to describe the short-wavelength spectrum of thermal radiation....
(which worked at short wavelengths). He found that the above function fit the data for all wavelengths remarkably well.
This paper is considered to be the beginning of
quantum theoryQuantum mechanics is a set of principles describing the physical reality at the atomic level of matter and the subatomic . These descriptions include the simultaneous wave-like and particle-like behavior of both matter and radiation...
.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
The Principles of Quantum Mechanics — P. A. M. Dirac
Description: Quantum mechanics as explained by one of the founders of the field, Paul Dirac. First edition published on 29 May 1930.
Importance: Introduction, Influence, Historical importance. The second to
the last chapter is particularly interesting because of its prediction of the positron.
Table of contents:
- The Principle of Superposition
- Dynamical Variables and Observables
- Representations
- The Quantum Conditions
- The Equations of Motion
- Elementary Applications
- Perturbation Theory
- Collision Problems
- Systems containing several similar particles
- Theory of Radiation
- Relativistic Theory of the electron
- Quantum Electrodynamics
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics — David J. Griffiths
- David J. Griffiths
- Prentice Hall (2nd edition 2004) ISBN 0-13-111892-7
Description: A how-to for Quantum Mechanics aimed at the physics undergraduate.
Importance: Introduction
An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction — Benjamin Thompson
Description: Observations of the generation of
heatIn physics and thermodynamics, heat is the process of energy transfer from one body or system due to thermal contact, which in turn is defined as an energy transfer to a body in any other way than due to work performed on the body....
during the
boringBoring may refer to:Making holes:*Boring , the drilling of holes or tunnels in the earth**Tunnel boring machine machine used in boring tunnels or shafts**Microtunnel boring machine , machine used in boring small tunnels or shafts...
of
cannonA cannon is any tubular piece of artillery that uses gunpowder or other usually explosive-based propellants to launch a projectile. Cannon vary in caliber, range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of fire, and firepower; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees,...
s led Rumford to reject the
caloric theoryThe caloric theory is an obsolete scientific theory that heat consists of a fluid called caloric that flows from hotter to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids...
and to contend that heat was a form of
motionIn physics, motion means a change in the location of a body. Change in motion is the result of applied force. Motion is typically described in terms of velocity, acceleration, displacement, and time. An object's velocity cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described by Newton's...
.
Importance: Influence
On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances — Willard Gibbs
Reprinted in
-
-
-
Description: Between 1876 and 1878 Gibbs wrote a series of papers collectively entitled "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances", considered one of the greatest achievements in physical science in the 19th century and the foundation of the science of physical chemistryPhysical chemistry is the explanation of macroscopic, microscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical concepts; sometimes using the principles, practices and concepts of physics like thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and...
. In these papers Gibbs applied thermodynamicsIn physics, thermodynamics is the study of the conversion of energy into work and heat and its relation to macroscopic variables such as temperature, volume and pressure...
to the interpretation of physicochemical phenomena and showed the explanation and interrelationship of what had been known only as isolated, inexplicable facts.
Gibbs' papers on heterogeneous equilibria included:
- Some chemical potential
Chemical potential, symbolized by μ, is a quantity first described by the American engineer, chemist and mathematical physicist Josiah Williard Gibbs...
concepts
- Some free energy
In thermodynamics, the term thermodynamic free energy refers to the amount of work that can be extracted from a system, and is helpful in engineering applications...
concepts
- A Gibbsian ensemble ideal (basis of the statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force...
field)
- A phase rule
Importance:
Classical and Statistical Thermodynamics — Ashley H. Carter and Benjamin Cummings
- Ashley H. Carter
- Benjamin Cummings (2000) ISBN 0137792085
Description: Covers the phenomenological basis of classical thermodynamics itself and also the statistical theory, without assuming the reader already knows statistics or quantum mechanics. Truly an introductory text, you can pick it up after taking advanced calculus and first year general physics and a semester later know about Bose-Einstein condensation, population inversionIn physics, specifically statistical mechanics, a population inversion occurs when a system exists in state with more members in an excited state than in lower energy states...
s, and even information theoryInformation theory is a branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering involving the quantification of information. Historically, information theory was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on compressing and reliably storing and communicating data...
.
Importance: Introduction
Statistical mechanics
Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen (Brownian motion) — Albert Einstein
Description: In this publication Einstein covered his study of Brownian motionBrownian motion is the seemingly random movement of particles suspended in a fluid or the mathematical model used to describe such random movements, often called a particle theory....
, and provided empirical evidence for the existence of atomThe atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of a dense, central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons...
s.
Importance:
Scaling laws for Ising models near Tc — Leo P. Kadanoff
- Leo P. Kadanoff
- Physica 2, p. 263 (1966).
Description: Introduces the real space view on the renormalization group, and explains using this concept some relations between the scaling exponents of the Ising model.
Importance: Topic creator, breakthrough, influence
The renormalization group: critical phenomena and the Kondo problem — Kenneth Wilson
- Kenneth Wilson
Kenneth Geddes Wilson is an American theoretical physicist.As an undergraduate at Harvard, he was a Putnam Fellow. He earned his PhD from Caltech in 1961, studying under Murray Gell-Mann....
- Rev. Mod. Phys. 47, 4, p. 773-840 (1974)
Description: Application of the renormalization group to the solution of the Kondo problem. The author was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 because of this work.
Importance: Breakthrough, influence
Equation of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines — Metropolis, Rosenbluth, Rosenbluth, Teller, and Teller
- Nicholas Metropolis
Nicholas Constantine Metropolis was a Greek American physicist.-Work:Metropolis received his B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in physics at the University of Chicago...
, Arianna W. Rosenbluth, Marshall N. Rosenbluth, Augusta H. Teller, and Edward TellerEdward Teller was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist, known colloquially as "the father of the hydrogen bomb", even though he claimed that he did not care for the title.Teller is best known for his work on the American nuclear program, specifically as a member of the Manhattan Project...
Description: Introduces the Metropolis Monte Carlo method with periodic boundary conditionsIn mathematical models and computer simulations, periodic boundary conditions are a set of boundary conditions that are often used to simulate a large system by modelling a small part that is far from its edge...
and applies it to the numerical simulation of a fluid.
Importance: Topic creator
Experimental Researches in Electricity — Michael Faraday
- Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday, FRS was an English chemist and physicist who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry....
- Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and ii., Richard and John Edward Taylor, vols. i. and ii. (1844 and 1847); vol. iii. (1844); vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis (1855);
- "Experimental Researches in Electricity" by Michael Faraday Original text with Biographical Introduction by Professor John Tyndall, 1914, Everyman edition.
Description: Faraday's law of inductionFaraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism, which is involved in the working of transformers, inductors, and many forms of electrical generators. The law states:...
and research in electromagnetismElectromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field, a field that exerts a force on particles with the property of electric charge and is reciprocally affected by the presence and motion of such particles....
Importance:
A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field — James Clerk Maxwell
- James Clerk Maxwell
James Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish theoretical physicist and mathematician. His most significant achievement was the development of the classical electromagnetic theory, synthesizing all previous unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a...
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". 1865.
Description: "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" was the third of James Clerk MaxwellJames Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish theoretical physicist and mathematician. His most significant achievement was the development of the classical electromagnetic theory, synthesizing all previous unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a...
's papers concerned with electromagnetismElectromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field, a field that exerts a force on particles with the property of electric charge and is reciprocally affected by the presence and motion of such particles....
.
The concept of displacement currentIn electromagnetism, displacement current is a quantity that is defined in terms of the rate of change of electric displacement field. Displacement current has the units of electric current density, and it has an associated magnetic field just as actual currents do. However it is not an electric...
was introduced,
so that it became possible to derive equations of electromagnetic wave.
It was the first paperPaper is thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
in which Maxwell's equationsMaxwell's equations are a set of four partial differential equations that relate the electric and magnetic fields to their sources, charge density and current density. These equations can be combined to show that light is an electromagnetic wave...
appeared.
Importance: Topic creator, breakthrough, influence
Classical Electrodynamics — J. D. Jackson
- John David Jackson
This page is on the physicist. For the boxer see John David Jackson .John David Jackson is a Canadian-American physics professor emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley and a senior staff physicist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory...
- Wiley (3rd edition 1998) ISBN 047130932X
Description: The defining graduate-level introductory text.
Importance: Influence, Introduction
Introduction to Electrodynamics — David Griffiths
- David Griffiths
- Prentice Hall. (3rd edition 1998) ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
Description: A standard undergraduate introductory text.
Importance: Introduction
An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the law of resistance in parallel channels — Osbourne Reynolds
- Osbourne Reynolds
- Philosophical Transactions, vol. 174, (1883).
Description: Introduces the dimensionless Reynolds numberIn fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and consequently quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions...
, investigating the critical Reynolds number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
The local structure of turbulence in incompressible viscous fluid for very large Reynolds numbers — A.N. Kolmogorov
- A.N. Kolmogorov
- Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR 30, p. 4 (1941). Reprinted in Proc. Roy. Soc. A 434, p. 9 (1991).
Description: Introduces the only quantitative theory on turbulence which has survived the test of time.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
Statistical fluid mechanics — A.S. Monin and A.M. Yaglom
- A.S. Monin, A.M. Yaglom
- The MIT press (1971). First edition in Russian by Nauka
Nauka is a Russian publisher of academic books and journals. Established in the USSR in 1923, it was called USSR Academy of Sciences Publisher until 1963. Until 1934 the publisher was based in Leningrad, then moved to Moscow. Its logo depicts an open book with Sputnik 1 above it.Nauka was the main...
(1965).
Description: The most important review text on turbulence.
Importance: Relevant textbook.
Deterministic nonperiodic flow — Edward Lorenz
Deterministic nonperiodic flowJournal of Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 20, p. 130-148 (1963).
Description: A finite system of deterministic nonlinear ordinary differential equations is introduced to represent forced dissipative hydrodynamic flow, simulating simple phenomena in the real atmosphere. All of the solutions are found to be unstable, and most of them nonperiodic, thus forcing to reevaluate the feasibility of long-term weather prediction. In this paper the Lorenz attractorThe Lorenz attractor, named for Edward N. Lorenz, is a fractal structure corresponding to the long-term behavior of the Lorenz oscillator. The Lorenz oscillator is a 3-dimensional dynamical system that exhibits chaotic flow, noted for its lemniscate shape...
is presented for the first time, and gave the first hint of what is now known as butterfly effectThe butterfly effect is a phrase that encapsulates the more technical notion of sensitive dependence on initial conditions in chaos theory. Small variations of the initial condition of a dynamical system may produce large variations in the long term behavior of the system...
.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough
Period Three Implies Chaos — T.Y. Li and J.A. Yorke
- T.Y. Li and J.A. Yorke
James A. Yorke is a Distinguished University Professor of Mathematics and Physics and chair of the Mathematics Department at the University of Maryland, College Park. He is also a recipient of the 2003 Japan Prize for his work in chaotic systems.Born in Plainfield, New Jersey, United States,...
.
- Period Three Implies ChaosAmerican Mathematical Monthly
The American Mathematical Monthly is a mathematical journal founded by Benjamin Finkel in 1894. It is currently published 10 times each year by the Mathematical Association of America....
82, pp. 985–992, (1975).
Space-Time approach to Quantum Electrodynamics — Richard P. Feynman
Description: Introduction of the Feynman diagrams approach to quantum electrodynamics.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory — Michael E. Peskin and Daniel V. Schroeder
- Michael E. Peskin
Michael Peskin is an American theoretical physicist. He was an undergraduate at Harvard University and obtained his Ph.D. in 1978 at Cornell University studying under Kenneth Wilson. He was a Junior Fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows from 1977-1980....
and Daniel V. Schroeder
- Addison-Wesley Advanced Book Program (1995).
Description: Standard graduate textbook in quantum field theory.
Importance: Introduction
The Early Universe — E.W. Kolb and M.S. Turner
- E.W. Kolb
Edward W. Kolb, usually known as Rocky Kolb, is a cosmologist at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and a professor at the University of Chicago. He has worked on many aspects of the big bang cosmology, including baryogenesis, nucleosynthesis and dark matter. He is author, with Michael Turner,...
and M.S. TurnerMichael S. Turner is a theoretical cosmologist, who coined the term dark energy. He is the Bruce V. & Diana M. Rauner Distinguished Service Professor at the University of Chicago, and was the Assistant Director for Mathematical and Physical Sciences for the US National Science Foundation in 2003-2006...
Description: Reference textbook on cosmology, discussing both observational and theoretical issues.
Importance: Relevant textbook.
A preliminary measurement of the cosmic microwave background spectrum by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite — Mather, et al.
- Mather, J. C.
John Cromwell Mather is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his work on COBE with George Smoot. COBE was the first experiment to measure ".....
; Cheng, E. S.; Eplee, R. E., Jr.; Isaacman, R. B.; Meyer, S. S.; Shafer, R. A.; Weiss, R.Rainer Weiss is professor of physics emeritus at MIT.- Early life and education :Weiss was born in Berlin, Germany, in 1932. Fleeing political unrest, his family moved first to Prague, in late 1932, and then to the United States, in 1938; his youth was spent in New York City, where he attended...
; Wright, E. L.Edward L. Wright is an American astrophysicist and cosmologist, well known for his achievements in the COBE project and as a strong Big Bang proponent in web tutorials on cosmology and theory of relativity....
; Bennett, C. L.Dr. Charles L. Bennett is an American observational astrophysicist and a Professor of Physics and Astronomy at the Johns Hopkins University. He is the Principal Investigator of NASA's highly successful Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe...
; Boggess, N. W.; Dwek, E.; Gulkis, S.; Hauser, M. G.; Janssen, M.; Kelsall, T.; Lubin, P. M.; Moseley, S. H., Jr.; Murdock, T. L.; Silverberg, R. F.; Smoot, G. F.George Fitzgerald Smoot III is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate, and a $1 million TV quiz show prize winner. He won the Nobel Prize in 2006 for his work on COBE with John C...
; Wilkinson, D. T.David Todd Wilkinson was a world-renowned pioneer in the field of cosmology, specializing in the study of the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the Big Bang. He was born in Hillsdale, Michigan, and earned his Ph.D. in physics at the University of Michigan under the supervision...
Description: This paper was part of the COBEThe Cosmic Background Explorer , also referred to as Explorer 66, was a satellite dedicated to cosmology. Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos.This work provided...
project. The COBE satellite was developed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to measure the diffuse infrared and microwave radiation from the early universe to the limits set by our astrophysical environment. It was launched November 18, 1989 and carried three instruments, a Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) to compare the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation to a precise blackbody, a Differential Microwave Radiometer (DMR) to map the cosmic radiation and search for brightness variants, and a Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE) to search for the cosmic infrared background radiation produced by the first galaxies.
FIRAS - The cosmic microwave background (CMB) spectrum is that of a nearly perfect blackbody with a temperature of 2.725 +/- 0.002 K. This observation matches the predictions of the hot Big Bang theory extraordinarily well, and indicates that nearly all of the radiant energy of the Universe was released within the first year after the Big Bang. Initial results from FIRAS were presented in this paper. Final results from FIRAS were presented at: J.C. Mather, et al., " Calibrator Design for the COBE Far-Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS)", ApJ, v.512, p.511 (1999)
Importance:
Structure in the COBE differential microwave radiometer first-year maps — Smoot, et al.
- Smoot, G. F.
George Fitzgerald Smoot III is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate, and a $1 million TV quiz show prize winner. He won the Nobel Prize in 2006 for his work on COBE with John C...
; Bennett, C. L.; Kogut, A.; Wright, E. L.Edward L. Wright is an American astrophysicist and cosmologist, well known for his achievements in the COBE project and as a strong Big Bang proponent in web tutorials on cosmology and theory of relativity....
; Aymon, J.; Boggess, N. W.; Cheng, E. S.; de Amici, G.; Gulkis, S.; Hauser, M. G.; Hinshaw, G.; Jackson, P. D.; Janssen, M.; Kaita, E.; Kelsall, T.; Keegstra, P.; Lineweaver, C.; Loewenstein, K.; Lubin, P.; Mather, J.; Meyer, S. S.; Moseley, S. H.; Murdock, T.; Rokke, L.; Silverberg, R. F.; Tenorio, L.; Weiss, R.Rainer Weiss is professor of physics emeritus at MIT.- Early life and education :Weiss was born in Berlin, Germany, in 1932. Fleeing political unrest, his family moved first to Prague, in late 1932, and then to the United States, in 1938; his youth was spent in New York City, where he attended...
; Wilkinson, D. T.David Todd Wilkinson was a world-renowned pioneer in the field of cosmology, specializing in the study of the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the Big Bang. He was born in Hillsdale, Michigan, and earned his Ph.D. in physics at the University of Michigan under the supervision...
- Online version
Description: This paper was part of the COBEThe Cosmic Background Explorer , also referred to as Explorer 66, was a satellite dedicated to cosmology. Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos.This work provided...
project. The COBE satellite was developed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to measure the diffuse infrared and microwave radiation from the early universe to the limits set by our astrophysical environment. It was launched November 18, 1989 and carried three instruments, a Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) to compare the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation to a precise blackbody, a Differential Microwave Radiometer (DMR) to map the cosmic radiation and search for Brightness variants, and a Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE) to search for the cosmic infrared background radiation produced by the first galaxies.
DMR - The CMB was found to have intrinsic "anisotropy" for the first time, at a level of a part in 100,000. These tiny variations in the intensity of the CMB over the sky show how matter and energy was distributed when the Universe was still very young. Later, through a process still poorly understood, the early structures seen by DMR developed into galaxies, galaxy clusters, and the large scale structure that we see in the Universe today. Initial results from FIRAS were presented in this paper. Final results from FIRAS were presented at: C.L. Bennett, et al., " Four-Year COBE DMR Cosmic Microwave Background Observations: Maps and Basic Results", ApJ,
v.464, p.L1 (1996)
Importance:
The COBE Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment Search for the Cosmic Infrared Background. I. Limits and Detections — Hauser, et al.
- Hauser, M. G.; Arendt, R. G.; Kelsall, T.; Dwek, E.; Odegard, N.; Weiland, J. L.; Freudenreich, H. T.; Reach, W. T.; Silverberg, R. F.; Moseley, S. H.; Pei, Y. C.; Lubin, P.;Mather, J. C.
John Cromwell Mather is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his work on COBE with George Smoot. COBE was the first experiment to measure ".....
; Shafer, R. A.; Smoot, G. F.George Fitzgerald Smoot III is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate, and a $1 million TV quiz show prize winner. He won the Nobel Prize in 2006 for his work on COBE with John C...
;Weiss, R.Rainer Weiss is professor of physics emeritus at MIT.- Early life and education :Weiss was born in Berlin, Germany, in 1932. Fleeing political unrest, his family moved first to Prague, in late 1932, and then to the United States, in 1938; his youth was spent in New York City, where he attended...
; Wilkinson, D. T.David Todd Wilkinson was a world-renowned pioneer in the field of cosmology, specializing in the study of the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the Big Bang. He was born in Hillsdale, Michigan, and earned his Ph.D. in physics at the University of Michigan under the supervision...
;Wright, E. L.Edward L. Wright is an American astrophysicist and cosmologist, well known for his achievements in the COBE project and as a strong Big Bang proponent in web tutorials on cosmology and theory of relativity....
Description: This paper was part of the COBEThe Cosmic Background Explorer , also referred to as Explorer 66, was a satellite dedicated to cosmology. Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos.This work provided...
project. The COBE satellite was developed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to measure the diffuse infrared and microwave radiation from the early universe to the limits set by our astrophysical environment. It was launched November 18, 1989 and carried three instruments, a Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) to compare the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation to a precise blackbody, a Differential Microwave Radiometer (DMR) to map the cosmic radiation and search for brightness variants, and a Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE) to search for the cosmic infrared background radiation produced by the first galaxies.
DIRBE - Infrared absolute sky brightness maps in the wavelength range 1.25 to 240 micrometres were obtained to carry out a search for the cosmic infrared background (CIB). The CIB was originally detected in the two longest DIRBE wavelength bands, 140 and 240 micrometres, and in the short-wavelength end of the FIRAS spectrum. Subsequent analyses have yielded detections of the CIB in the near-infrared DIRBE sky maps. The CIB represents a "core sample" of the Universe; it contains the cumulative emissions of stars and galaxies dating back to the epoch when these objects first began to form.
Importance:
The BCS papers (Theory of superconductivity) — J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer
- J. Bardeen
John Bardeen, Ph.D. was an American physicist and electrical engineer, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics twice: first in 1956 with William Shockley and Walter Brattain for the invention of the transistor; and again in 1972 with Leon Neil Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer for a fundamental theory...
, L. N. Cooper, and J. R. SchriefferJohn Robert Schrieffer is an American physicist and, with John Bardeen and Leon Neil Cooper, recipient of the 1972 Nobel Prize for Physics for developing the BCS theory , the first successful microscopic theory of superconductivity....
- L. N. Cooper, "Bound Electron Pairs in a Degenerate Fermi Gas", Phys. Rev 104, 1189 - 1190 (1956).
- J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer, "Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity",Phys. Rev. 106, 162 - 164 (1957).
- J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer, "Theory of Superconductivity", Phys. Rev. 108, 1175 (1957).
Description: The BCS theoryBCS theory is the first microscopic theory of superconductivity, proposed by Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer in 1957 since the discovery of superconductivity in 1911. It describes superconductivity as a microscopic effect caused by a condensation of pairs of electrons into a boson-like...
of usual (not high T_c) superconductivity, relating the interaction of electrons and the phonons of a lattice. The authors were awarded with the Nobel prize.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
Solid State Physics — Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin
- Neil W. Ashcroft, N. David Mermin
- Brooks Cole, 1976, ISBN 0030839939
Description: It is so old that it still calls condensed matter physics by the out of fashion name of solid state physics, but yet it is still a good introduction to the topic.
Importance: Introduction
Simulating physics with computers — Richard Feynman
- Richard Feynman
Richard Phillips Feynman was an American physicist known for the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as work in particle physics...
- International Journal of Theoretical Physics, 21(6/7): pp. 467–488, (1982).
- Online version
Description: A digital computer as an efficient universal computing device; the simulation of quantum mechanicsQuantum mechanics is a set of principles describing the physical reality at the atomic level of matter and the subatomic . These descriptions include the simultaneous wave-like and particle-like behavior of both matter and radiation...
and the use of quantum computers.
Importance: Influence
Statistical Mechanics of Chain Molecules — Paul J. Flory
- Paul J. Flory
- Interscience Publishers (1969). ISBN 0-470-26495-0. Reissued (1989). ISBN 1-56990-019-1.
Principles of Polymer Chemistry — Paul J. Flory
- Paul J. Flory
- Cornell University Press (1953). ISBN 0-8014-0134-8.
Scaling Concepts in Polymer Physics — Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
- Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes was a French physicist and the Nobel Prize laureate in Physics in 1991.-Biography:...
- Cornell University Press (1979). ISBN 978-0-8014-1203-5.
- (Google books)
Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets — Hagen Kleinert
- Kleinert, Hagen
Hagen Kleinert is Professor of Theoretical Physics at the Free University of Berlin, Germany , at theWest University of Timişoara, at thein Bishkek. He is also of the...
- 4th edition, World Scientific (Singapore, 2004); Paperback ISBN 981-238-107-4 (also available online: PDF-files)
The Theory of Polymer Dynamics — M. Doi and S. F. Edwards
- M. Doi, S. F. Edwards, (International Series of Monographs on Physics. 73)
- Oxford: Clarendon Press
Oxford house Press is the largest university press in the world. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the Vice-Chancellor known as the Delegates of the Press. they are headed by the Secretary to the Delegates, who serves as OUP's...
(1986). ISBN 978-0-19-852033-7.
The Mesoscopic Theory of Polymer Dynamics — V.N. Pokrovskii
- Vladimir N. Pokrovskii, (Springer Series in Chemical Physics, Vol. 95)
- The second edition, Springer, 2009. ISBN 978-90-481-2230-1
On Intramolecular Statistics, Particularly for Chain Molecules — Eugene Guth and Herman Mark
- Eugene Guth
Eugene Guth was an American physicist who made contributions to polymer physics and to nuclear and solid state physics. He was awarded a Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics by the University of Vienna in 1928...
and Herman Mark,
- Zur innermolekularen, Statistik, insbesondere bei Kettenmolekiilen
- Monatshefte für Chemie, 65, 93 (1934).
Description: This paper contains, among other contributions, the first theoretical description of statistical mechanics of polymers with application to viscosity and rubber elasticity, and an expression for the entropy gain during the coiling of linear flexible molecules.
Importance: Contains the foundation of the kinetic theory of rubber elasticity.
Elastic and Thermodynamic Properties of Rubberlike Materials: A Statistical Theory — Eugene Guth and Hubert M. James
- Eugene Guth
Eugene Guth was an American physicist who made contributions to polymer physics and to nuclear and solid state physics. He was awarded a Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics by the University of Vienna in 1928...
and Hubert M. James
-
Industrial Engineering Chemistry, 33, 624 (1941)
Description: This work was presented earlier by Guth at the American Chemical Society meeting of 1939. The article contains the first outline of the network theory of rubber elasticity. The resulting Guth-James equation of state is analogous to van der Waal's equation.
Importance: Pioneering contribution to polymer physics.
Theory of Elastic Properties of Rubber — Eugene Guth and Hubert M. James
- Eugene Guth
Eugene Guth was an American physicist who made contributions to polymer physics and to nuclear and solid state physics. He was awarded a Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics by the University of Vienna in 1928...
and Hubert M. James
-
Journal of Chemical PhysicsThe Journal of Chemical Physics is a scientific journal that publishes research papers on all areas of chemical physics. Two volumes, each of 24 issues, are published per year. It is published by the American Institute of Physics. The impact factor of the journal in 2008 was 3.149, making it the...
, 15, 2941 (1943).
Description: This article presents a more detailed version of the network theory of rubber elasticity. The paper used average forces to some extent instead of thermodynamical functions. In statistical thermodynamics, these two procedures are equivalent.
Importance: Pioneering contribution. After some controversy within the literature, the James-Guth network theory is now generally accepted for larger extensions. See, e.g., Paul Flory's comments in Proc. Royal Soc. A. 351, 351 (1976).
The Collected Works of Irving Langmuir — Irving Langmuir (1961)
- Irving Langmuir
Irving Langmuir was an American chemist and physicist. His most noted publication was the famous 1919 article "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" in which, building on Gilbert N. Lewis's cubical atom theory and Walther Kossel's chemical bonding theory, he outlined his...
- Oxford, Pergamon Press
Pergamon Press was an Oxford-based publishing house, founded by Robert Maxwell, which published scientific and medical books and journals. It was purchased by the academic publishing giant Elsevier in 1992....
.
- Vol.3: Thermonic Phenomenon: papers from 1916-1937
- Vol.4: Electrical Discharges: papers from 1923-1931
These two volumes from Nobel Prize winning scientist Irving LangmuirIrving Langmuir was an American chemist and physicist. His most noted publication was the famous 1919 article "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" in which, building on Gilbert N. Lewis's cubical atom theory and Walther Kossel's chemical bonding theory, he outlined his...
, include his early published papers resulting from his experiments with ionized gases (i.e. plasmaIn physics and chemistry, plasma is a partially ionized gas, in which a certain proportion of electrons are free rather than being bound to an atom or molecule. The ability of the positive and negative charges to move somewhat independently makes the plasma electrically conductive so that it...
). The books summarise many of the basic properties of plasmas. Langmuir coined the word plasma in about 1928.
Importance: Influence
Cosmical Electrodynamics — Hannes Alfvén & Carl-Gunne Fälthammar (1963)
- Hannes Alfvén
Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén was a Swedish plasma physicist and Nobel laureate for his work on the theory of magnetohydrodynamics. He was originally trained as an electrical power engineer and later moved to research and teaching in the fields of plasma physics...
& Carl-Gunne FälthammarCarl-Gunne Fälthammar is Professor Emeritus at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden, specialising in space and plasma physics in the School of Electrical Engineering...
- Oxford, Clarendon Press
Oxford house Press is the largest university press in the world. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the Vice-Chancellor known as the Delegates of the Press. they are headed by the Secretary to the Delegates, who serves as OUP's...
(1963).
Hannes Alfvén won the Nobel Prize for his development of magnetohydrodynamicsMagnetohydrodynamics is the academic discipline which studies the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such fluids include plasmas, liquid metals, and salt water. The word magnetohydrodynamics is derived from magneto- meaning magnetic field, and hydro- meaning liquid, and...
(MHD) the science that models plasma as fluids. This book lays down the ground work, but also shows that MHD may be inadequate for low-density plasmas such as space plasmas.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
The Automotive Chassis Engineering Principles — J. Reimpell, H. Stoll, and J. W. Betzler
- Jörnsen Reimpell, Helmut Stoll, and Jürgen W. Betzler.
- Butterworth-Heinemann
Butterworth-Heinemann was a UK-based international publishing company specialized in professional information and learning materials for higher education and professional training, in printed and electronic forms...
Translated from German (2001).
- ISBN 978-0-7680-0657-5.
- Online version
Description: Vehicle dynamics and chassis design from a production car perspective.
Importance: Latest and greatest.
Race Car Vehicle Dynamics — William F. Milliken, Jr. and Douglas L. Milliken
- William F. Milliken
William F. Milliken, Jr. is a former aerospace engineer, automotive engineer and racecar driver.After graduating from MIT in 1934, Milliken worked in the aircraft industry for 20 years in analysis, wind tunnel and flight testing, with emphasis on stability and control...
and Douglas L. Milliken.
- Society of Automotive Engineers (1995).
- ISBN 978-1-56091-526-3.
Description: Vehicle dynamics and chassis design from a race car perspective.
Importance: Latest and greatest, also the standard reference for automotive suspension engineers.
Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics — Thomas Gillespie
- Thomas D. Gillespie.
- Society of Automotive Engineers (1995).
- ISBN 978-1-56091-199-9.
Description: Mathematically oriented derivation of standard vehicle dynamics equations, and definitions of standard terms.
Importance: Introduction to modern vehicle dynamics theory.
Chassis Design - Principles and Analysis — William F. Milliken, Jr. and Douglas L. Milliken
- William F. Milliken
William F. Milliken, Jr. is a former aerospace engineer, automotive engineer and racecar driver.After graduating from MIT in 1934, Milliken worked in the aircraft industry for 20 years in analysis, wind tunnel and flight testing, with emphasis on stability and control...
and Douglas L. Milliken.
- Society of Automotive Engineers (2002).
Description: Vehicle dynamics as developed by Maurice Olley from the 1930s onwards. First comprehensive analytical synthesis of vehicle dynamics.
Importance: Topic creator.
Tyre modelling for use in vehicle dynamics studies — E. Bakker, L. Nyborg and Hans B. Pacejka
- Egbert Bakker, Lars Nyborg, and Hans B. Pacejka
Prof. Dr. Dr. Ir. Hans Bastiaan Pacejka is an expert in vehicle system dynamics and particularly in tire dynamics, fields in which his works are now standard references...
- Society of Automotive Engineers, 15 pages (1987).
- Online Copy
Description: A new way of representing tyre data obtained from measurements in pure cornering and pure braking conditions.
Importance: A standard reference in vehicle dynamics.
Seismic Data Processing
- Ozdogan Yilmaz
- Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1987, (ISBN 0-931830-40-0).
Description: Up to date account of seismic data processing in the petroleum geophysics industry.
Importance:
Underground Blasting, Seismic Surveys
Description:A biography and publication list for a geophysical researcher for the United States Geological SurveyThe United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its natural resources, and the natural hazards that threaten it. The organization has four major science disciplines, concerning...
Importance:Common reference in blasting and seismologySeismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth...
.
Invariante Variationsprobleme
- Emmy Noether
Amalie Emmy Noether, , was a German-born mathematician known for her groundbreaking contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics. Described by Albert Einstein and others as the most important woman in the history of mathematics, she revolutionized the theories of rings, fields, and...
(1918)
Description: Contained a proof of Noether's TheoremNoether's theorem states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. This seminal theorem was proved by Emmy Noether in 1915 and published in 1918...
(expressed as two theorems), showing that any symmetry of the Lagrangian corresponds to a conserved quantity. This result had a profound influence on 20th century theoretical physics.
Ising's Thesis
- Ising
Ernst Ising was a German physicist, who is best remembered for the development of the Ising model. He was a professor of physics at Bradley University until his retirement in 1976....
's 1924 thesis proving the non-existence of phase transitions in the 1-dimensional Ising modelThe Ising model, named after the physicist Ernst Ising, is a mathematical model in statistical mechanics. It has since been used to model diverse phenomena in which bits of information, interacting in pairs, produce collectiveeffects.-Definition :...
.
Contour Argument
- Peierls' 1936 contour argument proving the existence of phase transitions in higher dimensional Ising models.
Infrared bounds, phase transitions and continuous symmetry breaking
- Jürg Fröhlich, Tom Spencer, and Barry Simon
Barry Simon is an eminent American mathematical physicist and the IBM Professor of Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at Caltech, known for his prolific contributions in spectral theory, functional analysis, and nonrelativistic quantum mechanics , including the connections to atomic and...
- Infrared bounds, phase transitions and continuous symmetry breaking
Description: Proved the existence of phase transitions of continuous symmetry models in at least 3 dimensions. Communications in Mathematical PhysicsCommunications in Mathematical Physics is published by Springer. The journal publishes papers in all fields of Mathematical Physics, but its strength lies particularly in Analysis related to Condensed Matter Physics, Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory, and in Operator algebras, Quantum...
50 (1) p79-95 1976
Importance:
Mathematical Physics (1961)
- Donald H. Menzel, Harvard University
- Dover Publications, 1961
Description: Thorough introduction to the mathematical methods of classical mechanics, electromagnetic theory, quantum
theory and general relativity. Possibly more accessible than Morse and Feshbach. First published 1961. Available in Dover Editions.
Importance: Introduction.
Physics of computation
Lloyd, S., 2000, Ultimate physical limits of computation, NatureNature is a prominent British scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869. Most scientific journals are now highly specialized, and Nature is among the few journals that still publish original research articles across a wide range of scientific...
, 406:1047-1054.
Standard Model
Title:The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What is the Question? is a 1993 popular science book by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Leon M. Lederman and science writer Dick Teresi....
- Author: Leon M. Lederman
Leon Max Lederman is an American experimental physicist and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his work with neutrinos. He is Director Emeritus of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois...
, with Dick Teresi
- printed in the United States
- Language: English
- Publisher: Dell Publishing
- Publication date: 1993
- Media type print (hardback & paperback)
- ISBN ISBN 0-385-31211-3 (Original hardcover)
- Importance: Introduction to the Standard Model. The reader receives a working knowledge of the Standard Model without the math.
Theory and Design of Charged Particle Beams
- Martin Reiser
- Wiley, (2nd Edition 2008) ISBN 978-3527407415
- Description: A typical graduate level textbook for charged particle accelerators and beam dynamics.
- Importance: Introduction
Introduction to Elementary Particles
- David J. Griffiths
- Wiley, (New Ed Edition 1987) ISBN 0471603864
- Description: Standard undergraduate particle physics textbook.
- Importance: Introduction
Biophysics
- R Glaser (2004): Biophysics: An Introduction. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg. ISBN: 3540670882
- C R Cantor and P R Schimmel (1980): Biophysical Chemistry, Volumes 1-3. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco. Part I ISBN: 0716711885, Part II ISBN: 0716711907, Part III ISBN: 0716711923
Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical Principles and Sequence Design
- E. Mark Haacke, Robert W. Brown, Michael R. Thompson, Ramesh Venkatesan
- Wiley-Liss (1st edition 1999) ISBN 0471351288
Description: An influential graduate textbook in MRI by some of the principal advancers of the field.
Importance: Influence