List of poisonous plants
Encyclopedia
Plant
Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
s containing poison
Poison
In the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
ous parts that pose a serious risk of illness
Disease
A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
, injury, or death
Death
Death is the permanent termination of the biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, predation, malnutrition, disease, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury....
to human
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
s or animal
Animal
Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
s.
Human fatalities caused by poisonous plants - especially resulting from accidental ingestion - are rare in the USA.
Poisonous food plants
Many food plants possess toxic parts, are toxic unless processed, or are toxic at certain stages of their life. Notable examples include:- AppleAppleThe apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family . It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans. Apple grow on small, deciduous trees that blossom in the spring...
(Malus domestica). Seeds are mildly poisonous, containing a small amount of amygdalinAmygdalinAmygdalin , C20H27NO11, is a glycoside initially isolated from the seeds of the tree Prunus dulcis, also known as bitter almonds, by Pierre-Jean Robiquet...
, a cyanogenicCyanideA cyanide is a chemical compound that contains the cyano group, -C≡N, which consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. Cyanides most commonly refer to salts of the anion CN−. Most cyanides are highly toxic....
glycosideGlycosideIn chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to a non-carbohydrate moiety, usually a small organic molecule. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme...
. The quantity contained is usually not enough to be dangerous to humans, but it is possible to ingest enough seeds to provide a fatal dose. - CassavaCassavaCassava , also called yuca or manioc, a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae native to South America, is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates...
(Manihot esculenta) Roots and leaves contain two cyanogenic glucosides, linamarinLinamarinLinamarin is a cyanogenic glucoside found in the leaves and roots of plants such as cassava, lima beans, and flax. It is a glucoside of acetone cyanohydrin...
and lotaustralinLotaustralinLotaustralin is a cyanogenic glucoside found in small amounts in Fabaceae Austral Trefoil , cassava , lima bean , roseroot and white clover , among other plants...
. These are decomposed by linamaraseLinamaraseLinamarase, or beta-D-glucosidase , is an enzyme found in many plants including cassava and the butter bean.In cassava it is found in the cell walls. When the plant is chewed or ground, it exposes the enzyme to compounds like linamarin and lotaustralin which release cyanide compounds that can be...
, a naturally-occurring enzymeEnzymeEnzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
in cassava, liberating hydrogen cyanide . Cassava varieties are often categorized as either sweet or bitter, respectively signifying the absence or presence of toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosides. The 'sweet' cultivars can produce as little as 20 milligrams of cyanideCyanideA cyanide is a chemical compound that contains the cyano group, -C≡N, which consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. Cyanides most commonly refer to salts of the anion CN−. Most cyanides are highly toxic....
per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter ones may produce more than 50 times as much (1 g/kg). Cassavas grown during droughtDroughtA drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region...
are especially high in these toxins. A dose of 40 mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside is sufficient to kill a cow. It can also cause severe calcific pancreatitis in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis. Processing (soaking, cooking, fermentation, etc.) of cassava root is necessary to remove the toxins and avoid getting sick. "Chronic, low-level cyanide exposure is associated with the development of goiter and with tropical ataxic neuropathy, a nerve-damaging disorder that renders a person unsteady and uncoordinated. Severe cyanide poisoning, particularly during famines, is associated with outbreaks of a debilitating, irreversible paralytic disorder called konzo and, in some cases, death. The incidence of konzoKonzoKonzo is an epidemic paralytic disease first described by G. Trolli in 1938, who discovered it amongst the Kwango of the Belgian Congo . The outbreaks are associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed "bitter" cassava as a famine food...
and tropical ataxic neuropathy can be as high as 3 percent in some areas." For some smaller-rooted sweet varieties, cooking is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The cyanide is carried away in the processing water and the amounts produced in domestic consumption are too small to have environmental impact. The larger-rooted, bitter varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. Industrial production of cassava flour, even at the cottage level, may generate enough cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides in the effluents to have a severe environmental impact. - CherryCherryThe cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus Prunus, and is a fleshy stone fruit. The cherry fruits of commerce are usually obtained from a limited number of species, including especially cultivars of the wild cherry, Prunus avium....
(Prunus cerasus), as well as other Prunus species such as peachPeachThe peach tree is a deciduous tree growing to tall and 6 in. in diameter, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It bears an edible juicy fruit called a peach...
(Prunus persica), plumPlumA plum or gage is a stone fruit tree in the genus Prunus, subgenus Prunus. The subgenus is distinguished from other subgenera in the shoots having a terminal bud and solitary side buds , the flowers in groups of one to five together on short stems, and the fruit having a groove running down one...
(Prunus domestica), almondAlmondThe almond , is a species of tree native to the Middle East and South Asia. Almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree...
(Prunus dulcis), and apricotApricotThe apricot, Prunus armeniaca, is a species of Prunus, classified with the plum in the subgenus Prunus. The native range is somewhat uncertain due to its extensive prehistoric cultivation.- Description :...
(Prunus armeniaca). Leaves and seeds contain cyanogenic glycosides. - Indian peaLathyrus sativusLathyrus sativus, is a legume commonly grown for human consumption and livestock feed in Asia and East Africa. It is a particularly important crop in areas that are prone to drought and famine, and is thought of as an 'insurance crop' as it produces reliable yields when all other crops...
(Lathyrus sativus). A legume grown in Asia and East Africa as an insurance crop for use during famines. Like other grain legumes, L. sativus produces a high-protein seed. The seeds contain variable amounts of β-N-Oxalyl-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acidOxalyldiaminopropionic acidOxalyldiaminopropionic acid is the neurotoxin responsible for lathyrism.-See also:* β-Methylamino-L-alanine, a related toxin...
or ODAP, a neurotoxicNeurotoxinA neurotoxin is a toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells , usually by interacting with membrane proteins such as ion channels. Some sources are more general, and define the effect of neurotoxins as occurring at nerve tissue...
amino acidAmino acidAmino acids are molecules containing an amine group, a carboxylic acid group and a side-chain that varies between different amino acids. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen...
. ODAP causes wasting and paralysisParalysisParalysis is loss of muscle function for one or more muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor. A study conducted by the Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation, suggests that about 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed...
if eaten over a long period, and is considered as the cause of the disease neurolathyrism, a neurodegenerative disease that causes paralysis of the lower body and emaciation of gluteal muscle (buttocks). The disease has been seen to occur after famineFamineA famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including crop failure, overpopulation, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every continent in the world has...
s in Europe (France, Spain, Germany), North Africa and South AsiaSouth AsiaSouth Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities , also includes the adjoining countries to the west and the east...
, and is still prevalent in Eritrea, EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
and parts of Afghanistan when Lathyrus seed is the exclusive or main source of nutrients for extended periods. - Kidney bean or common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The toxic compound phytohaemagglutininPhytohaemagglutininPhytohaemagglutinin is a lectin found in plants, especially legumes. PHA actually consists of two closely related proteins, called leucoagglutinin and PHA-E. The letters E and L indicate these proteins agglutinate Erythrocytes and Leukocytes...
, a lectinLectinLectins are sugar-binding proteins that are highly specific for their sugar moieties. They play a role in biological recognition phenomena involving cells and proteins. For example, some viruses use lectins to attach themselves to the cells of the host organism during infection...
, is present in many varieties of common bean but is especially concentrated in red kidney beans. The lectin has a number of effects on cell metabolism; it induces mitosisMitosisMitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly...
, and affects the cell membrane in regard to transport and permeabilitySemipermeable membraneA semipermeable membrane, also termed a selectively permeable membrane, a partially permeable membrane or a differentially permeable membrane, is a membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it by diffusion and occasionally specialized "facilitated diffusion".The rate of...
to proteins. It agglutinatesAgglutination (biology)Agglutination is the clumping of particles. The word agglutination comes from the Latin agglutinare, meaning "to glue."This occurs in biology in three main examples:...
most mammalian red blood cellRed blood cellRed blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues via the blood flow through the circulatory system...
types. The primary symptoms of phytohaemagglutinin poisoning are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Onset is from 1 to 3 hours after consumption of improperly prepared beans, and symptoms typically resolve within a few hours. Consumption of as few as four or five raw kidney beans may be sufficient to trigger symptoms. Phytohaemagglutinin can be deactivated by cooking beans at 100 °C (212 °F) for ten minutes. However, for dry beans the U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationFood and Drug AdministrationThe Food and Drug Administration is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments...
(FDA) also recommends an initial soak of at least 5 hours in water; the soaking water should be discarded. The ten minutes at 100 °C (212 °F) is required to degrade the toxin, and is much shorter than the hours required to fully cook the beans themselves. However, lower cooking temperatures may have the paradoxical effect of potentiating the toxic effect of haemagglutinin. Beans cooked at 80 °C (176 °F) are reported to be up five times as toxic as raw beans. Outbreaks of poisoning have been associated with the use of slow cookerSlow cookerA slow cooker, also known as a Crock-Pot or Slo-Cooker , is a countertop electrical cooking appliance that is used for simmering, which requires maintaining a relatively low temperature compared to other cooking methods for many hours, allowing unattended cooking...
s, the low cooking temperatures of which may be unable to degrade the toxin. - NutmegNutmegThe nutmeg tree is any of several species of trees in genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, an evergreen tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia...
(Myristica fragrans). Contains myristicinMyristicinMyristicin is a phenylpropene, a natural organic compound present in small amounts in the essential oil of nutmeg and to a lesser extent in other spices such as parsley and dill.It is insoluble in water, but soluble in ethanol and acetone.-Uses:...
. Myristicin is a naturally occurring insecticideInsecticideAn insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind...
and acaricide with possible neurotoxicNeurotoxinA neurotoxin is a toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells , usually by interacting with membrane proteins such as ion channels. Some sources are more general, and define the effect of neurotoxins as occurring at nerve tissue...
effects on neuroblastomaNeuroblastomaNeuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid cancer in childhood and the most common cancer in infancy, with an annual incidence of about 650 cases per year in the US , and 100 cases per year in the UK . Close to 50 percent of neuroblastoma cases occur in children younger than two years old...
cells. It has psychoactive properties at doses much higher than used in cookingCookingCooking is the process of preparing food by use of heat. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions. Cooks themselves also vary widely in skill and training...
. Raw nutmeg produces anticholinergicAnticholinergicAn anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. An example of an anticholinergic is dicycloverine, and the classic example is atropine....
-like symptoms, attributed to myristicin and elemicinElemicinElemicin is a phenylpropene, a natural organic compound, and is a constituent of the essential oil of nutmeg.Elemicin is also a minor constituent of the oleoresin and essential oil of Manila elemi...
. The intoxicating effects of myristicin can lead to a physical state somewhere between waking and dreaming; euphoria is reported and nausea is often experienced. Users also report bloodshot eyes and memory disturbances. Myristicin is also known to induce hallucinogenic effects, such as visual distortions. Nutmeg intoxication has an extremely long time before peak is reached, sometimes taking up to seven hours, and effects can be felt for 24 hours, with lingering effects lasting up to 72 hours. - Lima bean or butter bean (Phaseolus lunatus). Raw beans contain dangerous amounts of linamarinLinamarinLinamarin is a cyanogenic glucoside found in the leaves and roots of plants such as cassava, lima beans, and flax. It is a glucoside of acetone cyanohydrin...
, a cyanogenicCyanideA cyanide is a chemical compound that contains the cyano group, -C≡N, which consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. Cyanides most commonly refer to salts of the anion CN−. Most cyanides are highly toxic....
glucosideGlucosideA glucoside is a glycoside that is derived from glucose. Glucosides are common in plants, but rare in animals. Glucose is produced when a glucoside is hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or decomposed by fermentation or enzymes....
. - LupinLupinLupinus, commonly known as Lupins or lupines , is a genus in the legume family . The genus comprises about 280 species , with major centers of diversity in South and western North America , and the Andes and secondary centers in the Mediterranean region and Africa Lupinus, commonly known as Lupins...
. Some varieties have edible seeds. Sweet Lupins have less, and Bitter Lupins have more of the toxic alkaloids lupinineLupinineLupinine is a bitter tasting alkaloid present in Lupinus spp. of Leguminosae plants. The scientific literature contains specifications for isolation and for synthesis of this compound. The bitter taste of the lupinus beans renders them unsuitable for human and animal consumption. In the past,...
and sparteineSparteineSparteine is a class 1a antiarrhythmic agent; a sodium channel blocker. It is an alkaloid and can be extracted from scotch broom. It is the predominant alkaloid in Lupinus mutabilis, and is thought to chelate the bivalents calcium and magnesium...
. - Onions and garlicAlliumAllium is a monocot genus of flowering plants, informally referred to as the onion genus. The generic name Allium is the Latin word for garlic....
. Onions and garlic (genus Allium) contain thiosulphate, which in high doses is toxic to dogs, cats and some other livestock. - PotatoPotatoThe potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae family . The word potato may refer to the plant itself as well as the edible tuber. In the region of the Andes, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species...
(Solanum tuberosum). Potatoes contain toxic compounds known as glycoalkaloidGlycoalkaloidGlycoalkaloids are a family of poisons commonly found in the plant species Solanum dulcamara . There are several glycoalkaloids that are potentially toxic. A prototypical glycoalkaloid is called solanine , which is found in potato...
s, of which the most prevalent are solanineSolanineSolanine is a glycoalkaloid poison found in species of the nightshade family , such as the potato . It can occur naturally in any part of the plant, including the leaves, fruit, and tubers. Solanine has fungicidal and pesticidal properties, and it is one of the plant's natural defenses...
and chaconineChaconineα-Chaconine is a steroidal glycoalkaloid chemical compound that occurs in plants of the Solanaceae family. It is a natural toxicant produced in green potatoes and gives the potato a bitter taste. Tubers produce this glycoalkaloid in response to stress, providing the plant with insecticidal and...
. Solanine is also found in other members of the SolanaceaeSolanaceaeSolanaceae are a family of flowering plants that include a number of important agricultural crops as well as many toxic plants. The name of the family comes from the Latin Solanum "the nightshade plant", but the further etymology of that word is unclear...
plant family, which includes Atropa belladonna ("deadly nightshade") and Hyoscyamus niger ("henbane") (see entries below). The concentration of glycoalkaloid in wild potatoes suffices to produce toxic effects in humans. The toxin affects the nervous system, causing headacheHeadacheA headache or cephalalgia is pain anywhere in the region of the head or neck. It can be a symptom of a number of different conditions of the head and neck. The brain tissue itself is not sensitive to pain because it lacks pain receptors. Rather, the pain is caused by disturbance of the...
s, diarrheaDiarrheaDiarrhea , also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day. It is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide. The loss of fluids through diarrhea can cause dehydration and...
and intense digestive disturbances, cramps, weakness and confusion, and in severe cases comaComaIn medicine, a coma is a state of unconsciousness, lasting more than 6 hours in which a person cannot be awakened, fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light or sound, lacks a normal sleep-wake cycle and does not initiate voluntary actions. A person in a state of coma is described as...
and death. Poisoning from cultivated potatoes occurs very rarely however, as the toxic compounds in the potato plant are, in general, concentrated in the green portions of the plant and in the fruits, and cultivated potato varieties contain lower toxin levels. Cooking at high temperatures (over 170 °C or 340 °F) also partly destroys the toxin. However, exposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber, the highest concentrations occurring just underneath the skin. Tubers which are exposed to light turn green from chlorophyllChlorophyllChlorophyll is a green pigment found in almost all plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. Its name is derived from the Greek words χλωρος, chloros and φύλλον, phyllon . Chlorophyll is an extremely important biomolecule, critical in photosynthesis, which allows plants to obtain energy from light...
synthesis, thus giving a visual clue as to areas of the tuber that may have become more toxic; however, this does not provide a definitive guide, as greening and glycoalkaloid accumulation can occur independently of each other. Some varieties of potato contain greater glycoalkaloid concentrations than others; breeders developing new varieties test for this, and sometimes have to discard an otherwise promising cultivarCultivarA cultivar'Cultivar has two meanings as explained under Formal definition. When used in reference to a taxon, the word does not apply to an individual plant but to all those plants sharing the unique characteristics that define the cultivar. is a plant or group of plants selected for desirable...
. Breeders try to keep solanine levels below 200 mg/kg (200 ppmw). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, even they can approach concentrations of solanine of 1000 mg/kg (1000 ppmw). The U.S. National Toxicology Program suggests that the average American consume at most 12.5 mg/day of solanine from potatoes (the toxic dose is actually several times this, depending on body weight). Douglas L. Holt, the State Extension Specialist for Food Safety at the University of MissouriUniversity of MissouriThe University of Missouri System is a state university system providing centralized administration for four universities, a health care system, an extension program, five research and technology parks, and a publishing press. More than 64,000 students are currently enrolled at its four campuses...
, notes that no reported cases of potato-source solanine poisoning have occurred in the U.S. in the last 50 years, and most cases involved eating green potatoes or drinking potato-leaf tea. - RhubarbRhubarbRhubarb is a group of plants that belong to the genus Rheum in the family Polygonaceae. They are herbaceous perennial plants growing from short, thick rhizomes. They have large leaves that are somewhat triangular-shaped with long fleshy petioles...
(Rheum rhaponticum). The leaf stalks (petiolesPetiole (botany)In botany, the petiole is the stalk attaching the leaf blade to the stem. The petiole usually has the same internal structure as the stem. Outgrowths appearing on each side of the petiole are called stipules. Leaves lacking a petiole are called sessile, or clasping when they partly surround the...
) are edible, but the leaves themselves contain notable quantities of oxalic acidOxalic acidOxalic acid is an organic compound with the formula H2C2O4. This colourless solid is a dicarboxylic acid. In terms of acid strength, it is about 3,000 times stronger than acetic acid. Oxalic acid is a reducing agent and its conjugate base, known as oxalate , is a chelating agent for metal cations...
, which is a nephrotoxic and corrosiveCorrosiveA corrosive substance is one that will destroy or irreversibly damage another surface or substance with which it comes into contact. The main hazards to people include damage to the eyes, the skin, and the tissue under the skin; inhalation or ingestion of a corrosive substance can damage the...
acid that is present in many plants. Symptoms of poisoning include kidney disorders, convulsions and coma. Rarely fatal. The (median lethal dose) for pure oxalic acid in rats is about 375 mg/kg body weightBody weightThe term body weight is used in daily English speech as well as in the contexts of biological and medical sciences to describe the mass of an organism's body. Body weight is measured in kilograms throughout the world, although in some countries it is still measured in pounds or stones and pounds...
, or about 25 gramGramThe gram is a metric system unit of mass....
s for a 65 kg (~140 lb) human. While the oxalic acid content of rhubarb leaves can vary, a typical value is about 0.5%, so a rather unlikely 5 kg of the extremely sour leaves would have to be consumed to reach an of oxalic acid. Cooking the leaves with soda can make them more poisonous by producing soluble oxalateOxalateOxalate , is the dianion with formula C2O42− also written 22−. Either name is often used for derivatives, such as disodium oxalate, 2C2O42−, or an ester of oxalic acid Oxalate (IUPAC: ethanedioate), is the dianion with formula C2O42− also written (COO)22−. Either...
s. However, the leaves are believed to also contain an additional, unidentified toxin, which might be an anthraquinoneAnthraquinoneAnthraquinone, also called anthracenedione or dioxoanthracene is an aromatic organic compound with formula . Several isomers are possible, each of which can be viewed as a quinone derivative...
glycosideGlycosideIn chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to a non-carbohydrate moiety, usually a small organic molecule. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme...
(also known as senna glycosidesSenna glycosidesSenna glycosides or sennosides are a number of anthraquinone derivatives useful as a laxative. They are dimeric glycosides named after their abundant occurrence in plants of the genus Senna....
). In the edible leaf stalks (petioles), the amount of oxalic acid is much lower, only about 2-2.5% of the total acidity which is dominated by malic acidMalic acidMalic acid is an organic compound with the formula HO2CCH2CHOHCO2H. It is a dicarboxylic acid which is made by all living organisms, contributes to the pleasantly sour taste of fruits, and is used as a food additive. Malic acid has two stereoisomeric forms , though only the L-isomer exists...
. This means that even the raw stalks may not be hazardous (though they are generally thought to be in the US). However the tart taste of raw stalks is so strong as to be unpalatable to many. - TomatoTomatoThe word "tomato" may refer to the plant or the edible, typically red, fruit which it bears. Originating in South America, the tomato was spread around the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas, and its many varieties are now widely grown, often in greenhouses in cooler...
(Solanum lycopersicum). Like many other nightshades, tomato leaves and stems contain atropineAtropineAtropine is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade , Jimson weed , mandrake and other plants of the family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide variety of effects...
and other tropane alkaloids that are toxic if ingested, causing digestive upset and nervous excitement. Use of tomato leaves as a tea (tisaneTisaneA herbal tea, tisane, or ptisan is a herbal or plant infusion and usually not made from the leaves of the tea bush . Typically, herbal tea is simply the combination of boiling water and dried fruits, flowers or herbs. Herbal tea has been imbibed for nearly as long as written history extends...
) has been responsible for at least one death. Leaves, stems, and green unripe fruit of the tomato plant also contain small amounts of the poisonous alkaloid tomatineTomatineTomatine is a toxic glycoalkaloid found in the stems and leaves of tomato plants, which has fungicidal properties. Chemically pure tomatine is a white crystalline solid at standard temperature and pressure...
, although levels are generally too small to be dangerous. Ripe tomatoes do not contain any detectable tomatine. Tomato plants can be toxic to dogs if they eat large amounts of the fruit, or chew plant material.
Other poisonous plants
- Abrus precatorius (known commonly as jequirity, crab's eye, rosary pea, 'John Crow' bead, precatory bean, Indian licorice, akar saga, giddee giddee, jumbie bead, ruti, and weather plant). The attractive seeds (usually about the size of a ladybug, glossy red with one black dot) contain abrinAbrinAbrin is a toxalbumin that is found in the seeds of a plant called lucky bean, rosary pea or jequirity pea. Abrin is similar to but far more deadly than ricin, a toxin found in the seeds of the castor oil plant.-Physical Properties:...
, which is related to ricinRicinRicin , from the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, is a highly toxic, naturally occurring protein. A dose as small as a few grains of salt can kill an adult. The LD50 of ricin is around 22 micrograms per kilogram Ricin , from the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, is a highly toxic, naturally...
, and very potent. Symptoms of poisoning include nausea, vomiting, convulsions, liver failure, and death, usually after several days. Ingesting a single seed can kill an adult human. The seeds have been used as beads in jewelry, which is dangerous; inhaled dust is toxic and pinpricks can be fatal. The seeds are unfortunately attractive to children. - AconitumAconitumAconitum , known as aconite, monkshood, wolfsbane, leopard's bane, women's bane, Devil's helmet or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the buttercup family .-Overview:These herbaceous perennial plants are chiefly natives of the mountainous parts of the...
(Several species, commonly called aconite, wolfsbane and monkshood) All parts are poisonous. The poison is an alkaloid called aconitine, which disables nerves, lowers blood pressure, and can stop the heart. Even casual skin contact should be avoided; symptoms include numbness, tingling, and cardiac irregularity. It has been used as poison for bullets (by Germany in WWII), as a bait and arrow poison (ancient Greece), and to poison water supplies (reports from ancient Asia). If ingested, it usually causes burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth, followed by vomiting and nervous excitement. It is usually a quick-acting poison. Used in the past for killing wolves (hence one of the common names). - Actaea pachypodaActaea pachypodaActaea pachypoda is a flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, native to eastern North America....
(also known as doll's eyes or white baneberry). All parts are poisonous, but especially the berries, the consumption of which has a sedative effect on cardiac muscle tissue and can cause cardiac arrest. - Adam and Eve - see Arum maculatum.
- Adenium obesumAdenium obesumAdenium obesum is a species of flowering plant in the dogbane family, Apocynaceae, that is native to the Sahel regions, south of the Sahara , and tropical and subtropical eastern and southern Africa and Arabia...
(also known as sabi star, kudu or desert-rose). Exudes a highly toxic sap which is used by the Meridian High and Hadza in Tanzania to coat arrow-tips for hunting. - Aesculus hippocastanum (commonly known as horse-chestnut). All parts of the plant are poisonous, causing nausea, muscle twitches, and sometimes paralysis.
- African sumac - see Rhus lancia.
- AgaveAgaveAgave is a genus of monocots. The plants are perennial, but each rosette flowers once and then dies ; they are commonly known as the century plant....
. The juice of a number of species causes acute contact dermatitis, with blistering lasting several weeks and recurring itching for several years thereafter. - Ageratina altissima (commonly known as white snakeroot). All parts are poisonous, causing nausea and vomiting. Often fatal. Milk from cattle that have eaten white snakeroot can sicken, or kill, humans (milk sicknessMilk sicknessMilk sickness, also known as tremetol vomiting, or in animals as trembles, is characterized by trembling, vomiting, and severe intestinal pain that affects individuals who ingest milk or other dairy products, or meat from a cow that has fed on white snakeroot, which contains the poison...
). - Agrostemma githago (commonly known as corn cockle). Contains the saponins githagin and agrostemmic acid. All parts of the plant are reported to be poisonous and may produce chronic or acute, potentially fatal poisoning, although it has been used in folk medicine to treat a range of ills, from parasites to cancer . There are no known recent clinical studies of corn cockle which provide a basis for dosage recommendations, however doses higher than 3 g [of seeds] are considered toxic.http://www.drugs.com/npp/corn-cockle.html
- Akar saga - see Abrus precatorius.
- Angel's Trumpet - see Brugmansia.
- Angel Wings - see Caladium.
- AquilegiaAquilegiaAquilegia is a genus of about 60-70 species of perennial plants that are found in meadows, woodlands, and at higher altitudes throughout the Northern Hemisphere, known for the spurred petals of their flowers.-Etymology:The genus name Aquilegia is derived from the Latin word for eagle , because...
(also known as columbine). Several species. Seeds and roots contain cardiogenic toxins which cause both severe gastroenteritisGastroenteritisGastroenteritis is marked by severe inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract involving both the stomach and small intestine resulting in acute diarrhea and vomiting. It can be transferred by contact with contaminated food and water...
and heart palpitations if consumed. The flowers of various species were consumed in moderation by Native AmericanNative Americans in the United StatesNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
s as a condimentCondimentA condiment is an edible substance, such as sauce or seasoning, added to food to impart a particular flavor, enhance its flavor, or in some cultures, to complement the dish. Many condiments are available packaged in single-serving sachets , like mustard or ketchup, particularly when supplied with...
with other fresh greens, and are reported to be very sweet, and safe if consumed in small quantities. Native Americans also used very small amounts of the root as an effective treatment for ulcerPeptic ulcerA peptic ulcer, also known as PUD or peptic ulcer disease, is the most common ulcer of an area of the gastrointestinal tract that is usually acidic and thus extremely painful. It is defined as mucosal erosions equal to or greater than 0.5 cm...
s. However, the medical use of this plant is difficult due to its high toxicity; columbine poisonings are easily fatal. - Areca catechuAreca catechuAreca catechu is the areca palm or areca nut palm, , a species of palm which grows in much of the tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts of east Africa. The palm is believed to have originated in either Malaysia or the Philippines...
(commonly known as betel nut palm and pinyang). The nut contains an alkaloid related to nicotineNicotineNicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants that constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots and accumulation occurring in the leaves...
which is addictive. It produces a mild high, some stimulation, and lots of red saliva, which cannot be swallowed as it causes nausea. Withdrawal causes headache and sweats. Use is correlated with mouth cancer, and to a lesser extent asthma and heart disease. - Arum maculatumArum maculatumArum maculatum is a common woodland plant species of the Araceae family. It is widespread across temperate northern Europe and is known by an abundance of common names including Wild arum, Lords and Ladies, Devils and Angels, Cows and Bulls, Cuckoo-Pint, Adam and Eve, Bobbins, Naked Boys,...
(commonly known as cuckoo-pint, lords and ladies, jack in the pulpit, wake robin, wild arum, devils and angels, cows and bulls, Adam and Eve, bobbins, naked boys and starch-root). All parts of the plant can produce allergic reactions. The bright red berries contain oxalates of saponins and can cause skin, mouth and throat irritation, resulting in swelling, burning pain, breathing difficulties and stomach upset. One of the most common causes of plant poisoning. - AsparagusAsparagusAsparagus officinalis is a spring vegetable, a flowering perennialplant species in the genus Asparagus. It was once classified in the lily family, like its Allium cousins, onions and garlic, but the Liliaceae have been split and the onion-like plants are now in the family Amaryllidaceae and...
. The berries are poisonous. - Atropa belladonna (commonly known as deadly nightshade, belladonna, devil's cherry and dwale, an Anglo-Saxon term meaning stupifying drink). One of the most toxicToxicityToxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage a living or non-living organisms. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ , such as the liver...
plants found in the Western hemisphereWestern HemisphereThe Western Hemisphere or western hemisphere is mainly used as a geographical term for the half of the Earth that lies west of the Prime Meridian and east of the Antimeridian , the other half being called the Eastern Hemisphere.In this sense, the western hemisphere consists of the western portions...
. All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids. The active agents are atropineAtropineAtropine is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade , Jimson weed , mandrake and other plants of the family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide variety of effects...
, hyoscine (scopolamineScopolamineScopolamine, also known as levo-duboisine, and hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug with muscarinic antagonist effects. It is among the secondary metabolites of plants from Solanaceae family of plants, such as henbane, jimson weed and Angel's Trumpets , and corkwood...
), and hyoscyamineHyoscyamineHyoscyamine is a tropane alkaloid. It is a secondary metabolite found in certain plants of the Solanaceae family, including henbane , mandrake , jimsonweed , tomato and deadly nightshade...
, which have anticholinergicAnticholinergicAn anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. An example of an anticholinergic is dicycloverine, and the classic example is atropine....
properties. The symptoms of poisoning include dilatedMydriasisMydriasis is a dilation of the pupil due to disease, trauma or the use of drugs. Normally, the pupil dilates in the dark and constricts in the light to respectively improve vividity at night and to protect the retina from sunlight damage during the day...
pupilPupilThe pupil is a hole located in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the retina. It appears black because most of the light entering the pupil is absorbed by the tissues inside the eye. In humans the pupil is round, but other species, such as some cats, have slit pupils. In...
s, sensitivity to light, blurred visionVisual perceptionVisual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision...
, tachycardiaTachycardiaTachycardia comes from the Greek words tachys and kardia . Tachycardia typically refers to a heart rate that exceeds the normal range for a resting heart rate...
, loss of balance, staggering, headache, rashRashA rash is a change of the skin which affects its color, appearance or texture. A rash may be localized in one part of the body, or affect all the skin. Rashes may cause the skin to change color, itch, become warm, bumpy, chapped, dry, cracked or blistered, swell and may be painful. The causes, and...
, flushing, dry mouth and throat, slurred speech, urinary retentionUrinary retentionUrinary retention, also known as ischuria, is a lack of ability to urinate. It is a common complication of benign prostatic hyperplasia , although it can also be caused by nerve dysfunction, constipation, infection, or medications...
, constipationConstipationConstipation refers to bowel movements that are infrequent or hard to pass. Constipation is a common cause of painful defecation...
, confusionMental confusionConfusion of a pathological degree usually refers to loss of orientation sometimes accompanied by disordered consciousness and often memory Confusion (from Latin confusĭo, -ōnis, noun of action from confundere "to pour together", also "to confuse") of a pathological degree usually refers to loss...
, hallucinationHallucinationA hallucination, in the broadest sense of the word, is a perception in the absence of a stimulus. In a stricter sense, hallucinations are defined as perceptions in a conscious and awake state in the absence of external stimuli which have qualities of real perception, in that they are vivid,...
s, delirium, and convulsions. The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part, though this can vary from one specimen to another. Ingestion of a single leaf of the plant can be fatal to an adult. Casual contact with the leaves can cause skin pustules. The berries pose the greatest danger to children because they look attractive and have a somewhat sweet taste. The consumption of two to five berries by children and ten to twenty berries by adults can be lethal. In 2009 a case of A. belladonna being mistaken for blueberries, with six berries ingested by an adult woman, was documented to result in severe anticholinergicAnticholinergicAn anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. An example of an anticholinergic is dicycloverine, and the classic example is atropine....
syndrome. The plant's deadly symptoms are caused by atropine's disruption of the parasympathetic nervous systemParasympathetic nervous systemThe parasympathetic nervous system is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system . The ANS is responsible for regulation of internal organs and glands, which occurs unconsciously...
's ability to regulate involuntary activities such as sweating, breathing, and heart rate. The antidoteAntidoteAn antidote is a substance which can counteract a form of poisoning. The term ultimately derives from the Greek αντιδιδοναι antididonai, "given against"....
for atropine poisoning is physostigminePhysostigminePhysostigmine is a parasympathomimetic alkaloid, specifically, a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor. It occurs naturally in the Calabar bean....
or pilocarpinePilocarpinePilocarpine is a parasympathomimetic alkaloid obtained from the leaves of tropical American shrubs from the genus Pilocarpus. It is a non-selective muscarinic receptor agonist in the parasympathetic nervous system, which acts therapeutically at the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M3 due to its...
. A. belladonna is also toxic to many domestic animals, causing narcosisNarcosisNarcosis may refer to:* Narcosis, the unconsciousness induced by a narcotic drug* Nitrogen narcosis, an effect of diving deep with nitrogen* Hydrogen narcosis, an effect of diving deep with hydrogenIn music:* Narcosis , an English metal band...
and paralysisParalysisParalysis is loss of muscle function for one or more muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor. A study conducted by the Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation, suggests that about 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed...
. However, cattle and rabbitRabbitRabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world...
s eat the plant seemingly without suffering harmful effects. In humans its anticholinergic properties will cause the disruption of cognitive capacities like memory and learning. - Autumn crocus - see Colchicum autumnale.
- Azalea - see Rhododendron.
- Bittersweet nightshade - see Solanum dulcamara.
- Black hellebore - see Helleborus niger.
- Black locust - see Robinia pseudoacacia.
- Black nightshade - see Solanum nigrum.
- Black snakeroot - see Zigadenus.
- Bleeding heart - see Dicentra cucullaria.
- Blind-your-eye mangrove - see Excoecaria agallocha.
- Blister Bush - see Peucedanum galbanum.
- Bloodroot - see Sanguinaria canadensis.
- Blue-green algae - see Cyanobacteria.
- Bobbins - see Arum maculatum.
- Bracken - see Pteridium aquilinum.
- Broom - see Cytisus scoparius.
- BrugmansiaBrugmansiaBrugmansia is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the family Solanaceae, native to subtropical regions of South America, along the Andes from Colombia to northern Chile, and also in southeastern Brazil. They are known as Angel's Trumpets, sharing that name with the closely related genus...
(commonly known as angel's trumpet). All parts of the plant contain the tropane alkaloids scopolamineScopolamineScopolamine, also known as levo-duboisine, and hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug with muscarinic antagonist effects. It is among the secondary metabolites of plants from Solanaceae family of plants, such as henbane, jimson weed and Angel's Trumpets , and corkwood...
and atropineAtropineAtropine is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade , Jimson weed , mandrake and other plants of the family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide variety of effects...
. Often fatal. - Calabar Bean - see Physostigma venenosum.
- CaladiumCaladiumCaladium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae. They are often known by the common name elephant ear , Heart of Jesus, and Angel Wings...
(commonly known as angel wings, elephant ear and heart of Jesus). All parts of the plant are poisonous. Symptoms are generally irritation, pain, and swelling of tissues. If the mouth or tongue swell, breathing may be fatally blocked. - Castor oil plant - see Ricinus communis.
- Cerbera odollamCerbera odollamCerbera odollam, commonly known as the Suicide tree, Pong-pong, and Othalanga, is a species of tree native to India and other parts of Southern Asia. It grows preferentially in coastal salt swamps and in marshy areas. It grows wild along the coast in many parts of Kerala, India and has been grown...
(commonly known as the suicide tree). The seeds contain cerberin, a potent alkaloidAlkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
toxinToxinA toxin is a poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms; man-made substances created by artificial processes are thus excluded...
related to digoxinDigoxinDigoxin INN , also known as digitalis, is a purified cardiac glycoside and extracted from the foxglove plant, Digitalis lanata. Its corresponding aglycone is digoxigenin, and its acetyl derivative is acetyldigoxin...
. The poison blocks the calciumCalciumCalcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust...
ion channelIon channelIon channels are pore-forming proteins that help establish and control the small voltage gradient across the plasma membrane of cells by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient. They are present in the membranes that surround all biological cells...
s in heart muscle, causing disruption of the heart beat. This is typically fatal and can result from ingesting a single seed. Cerberin is difficult to detect in autopsiesAutopsyAn autopsy—also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy , autopsia cadaverum, or obduction—is a highly specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present...
and its taste can be masked with strong spiceSpiceA spice is a dried seed, fruit, root, bark, or vegetative substance used in nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for flavor, color, or as a preservative that kills harmful bacteria or prevents their growth. It may be used to flavour a dish or to hide other flavours...
s, such as a curry. It is often used in homicideHomicideHomicide refers to the act of a human killing another human. Murder, for example, is a type of homicide. It can also describe a person who has committed such an act, though this use is rare in modern English...
and suicideSuicideSuicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Suicide is often committed out of despair or attributed to some underlying mental disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, alcoholism, or drug abuse...
in IndiaIndiaIndia , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
; Kerala's suicide rate is about three times the Indian average. In 2004, a team led by Yvan Gaillard of the Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology in La Voulte-sur-Rhône, France, documented more than 500 cases of fatal Cerbera poisoning between 1989 and 1999 in KeralaKeralaor Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
. They said "To the best of our knowledge, no plant in the world is responsible for as many deaths by suicide as the odollam tree.' A related species is Cerbera tanghin the seeds of which are known as tanghin poison nut and have been used as an 'ordeal poison'. - Chelidonium majus (also known as greater celandine). The whole plant is toxic in moderate doses as it contains a range of isoquinolineQuinolineQuinoline is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound. It has the formula C9H7N and is a colourless hygroscopic liquid with a strong odour. Aged samples, if exposed to light, become yellow and later brown...
alkaloidAlkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
s, but there are claimed to be therapeutic uses when used at the correct dosage. The main alkaloid present in the herbHerbExcept in botanical usage, an herb is "any plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers used for flavoring, food, medicine, or perfume" or "a part of such a plant as used in cooking"...
and rootRootIn vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil. This is not always the case, however, since a root can also be aerial or aerating . Furthermore, a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either...
is coptisineCoptisineCoptisine is an alkaloid found in Chinese goldthread . Famous for the bitter taste that it produces, it is used in Chinese herbal medicine along with the related compound berberine for treating digestive disorders caused by bacterial infections.Also found in Greater Celandine and has also been...
, with berberineBerberineBerberine is a quaternary ammonium salt from the protoberberine group of isoquinoline alkaloids. It is found in such plants as Berberis Berberine is a quaternary ammonium salt from the protoberberine group of isoquinoline alkaloids. It is found in such plants as Berberis Berberine is a quaternary...
, chelidonine, sanguinarineSanguinarineSanguinarine is a quaternary ammonium salt from the group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids. It is extracted from some plants, including bloodroot , Mexican prickly poppy Argemone mexicana, Chelidonium majus and Macleaya cordata. It is also found in the root, stem and leaves of the opium poppy but...
and chelerythrineChelerythrineChelerythrine is a benzophenanthridine alkaloid extracted from the plant Greater celandine . It is a potent, selective, and cell-permeable protein kinase C inhibitor....
also present. SanguinarineSanguinarineSanguinarine is a quaternary ammonium salt from the group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids. It is extracted from some plants, including bloodroot , Mexican prickly poppy Argemone mexicana, Chelidonium majus and Macleaya cordata. It is also found in the root, stem and leaves of the opium poppy but...
is particularly toxic with an of only 18 mg per kg body weight. The effect of the fresh herb is analgesicAnalgesicAn analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain . The word analgesic derives from Greek an- and algos ....
, cholagogic, antimicrobialAntimicrobialAn anti-microbial is a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, or protozoans. Antimicrobial drugs either kill microbes or prevent the growth of microbes...
and oncostatic, with action as a central nervous systemCentral nervous systemThe central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish...
sedativeSedativeA sedative or tranquilizer is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement....
. In animal tests, Chelidonium majus is shown to be cytostatic. Early studies showed that the latexLatexLatex is the stable dispersion of polymer microparticles in an aqueous medium. Latexes may be natural or synthetic.Latex as found in nature is a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants . It is a complex emulsion consisting of proteins, alkaloids, starches, sugars, oils, tannins, resins,...
sap causes contact dermatitisContact dermatitisContact dermatitis is a term for a skin reaction resulting from exposure to allergens or irritants . Phototoxic dermatitis occurs when the allergen or irritant is activated by sunlight....
and eye irritation. Stains on skin of the fingers are sometimes reported to cause eye irritation after rubbing the eyes or handling contact lenses. The characteristic latex also contains proteolytic enzymes and the phytocystatinCystatinThe cystatins are a family of cysteine protease inhibitors with homology to chicken cystatin. Cystatins typically comprise about 115 amino acids, are largely acidic, contain four conserved cysteine residues known to form two disulfide bonds, may be glycosylated and/or phosphorylated, with...
chelidostatin, a cysteine proteaseCysteine proteaseProteases are enzymes that degrade polypeptides. Cysteine proteases have a common catalytic mechanism that involves a nucleophilic cysteine thiol in a catalytic dyad. The first step is deprotonation of a thiol in the enzyme's active site by an adjacent amino acid with a basic side chain, usually a...
inhibitor. - Christmas rose - see Helleborus niger.
- CicutaCicutaCicuta, commonly known as water hemlock, is a small genus of four species of highly poisonous plants in the family Apiaceae. They are perennial herbaceous plants which grow up to tall, having distinctive small green or white flowers arranged in an umbrella shape . Plants in this genus may also be...
(several species) (commonly known as water hemlock, cowbane, wild carrot, snakeweed, poison parsnip, false parsley, children's bane and death-of-man). The root, when freshly pulled out of the ground, is extremely poisonous and contains the toxin cicutoxinCicutoxinCicutoxin is a poisonous polyyne and alcohol found in various plants, most notably water hemlock . It is structurally related to the oenanthotoxin of hemlock water dropwort....
, a central nervous system stimulant, resulting in seizures. When dried, the poisonous effect is reduced. The most common species is C. maculata; one of the species found in the Western USA, C. douglasii, often found in pastures and swamps, has especially thick stems and very large and sturdy flowers which are sometimes harvested for flower displays. This is inadvisable as the sap is also toxic. - Cocklebur - see Xanthium.
- Colchicum autumnaleColchicum autumnaleColchicum autumnale, commonly known as autumn crocus, meadow saffron or naked lady, is a flower which resembles the true crocuses, but flowering in autumn...
(commonly known as autumn crocus and meadow saffron). The bulbs contain colchicineColchicineColchicine is a medication used for gout. It is a toxic natural product and secondary metabolite, originally extracted from plants of the genus Colchicum...
. Colchicine poisoning has been compared to arsenicArsenicArsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As, atomic number 33 and relative atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in conjunction with sulfur and metals, and also as a pure elemental crystal. It was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250.Arsenic is a metalloid...
poisoning; symptoms start 2 to 5 hours after the toxic dose has been ingested and include burning in the mouth and throat, feverFeverFever is a common medical sign characterized by an elevation of temperature above the normal range of due to an increase in the body temperature regulatory set-point. This increase in set-point triggers increased muscle tone and shivering.As a person's temperature increases, there is, in...
, vomitingVomitingVomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose...
, diarrheaDiarrheaDiarrhea , also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day. It is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide. The loss of fluids through diarrhea can cause dehydration and...
, abdominal painAbdominal painAbdominal pain can be one of the symptoms associated with transient disorders or serious disease. Making a definitive diagnosis of the cause of abdominal pain can be difficult, because many diseases can result in this symptom. Abdominal pain is a common problem...
and kidney failureRenal failureRenal failure or kidney failure describes a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste products from the blood...
. These symptoms may set in as many as 24 hours after the exposure. Onset of multiple-system organ failure may occur within 24 to 72 hours. This includes hypovolemic shock due to extreme vascular damage and fluid loss through the GI tract, which may result in death. Additionally, sufferers may experience kidney damage resulting in low urine output and bloody urine; low white blood cell counts (persisting for several days); anemiaAnemiaAnemia is a decrease in number of red blood cells or less than the normal quantity of hemoglobin in the blood. However, it can include decreased oxygen-binding ability of each hemoglobin molecule due to deformity or lack in numerical development as in some other types of hemoglobin...
; muscular weakness; and respiratory failureRespiratory failureThe term respiratory failure, in medicine, is used to describe inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, with the result that arterial oxygen and/or carbon dioxide levels cannot be maintained within their normal ranges. A drop in blood oxygenation is known as hypoxemia; a rise in arterial...
. Recovery may begin within 6 to 8 days. There is no specific antidote for colchicine, although various treatments do exist. Despite dosing issues concerning its toxicity, colchicine is prescribed in the treatment of goutGoutGout is a medical condition usually characterized by recurrent attacks of acute inflammatory arthritis—a red, tender, hot, swollen joint. The metatarsal-phalangeal joint at the base of the big toe is the most commonly affected . However, it may also present as tophi, kidney stones, or urate...
, familial Mediterranean feverFamilial Mediterranean feverFamilial Mediterranean fever is a hereditary inflammatory disorder. FMF is an autoinflammatory disease caused by mutations in MEFV, a gene which encodes a 781–amino acid protein denoted pyrin....
, pericarditisPericarditisPericarditis is an inflammation of the pericardium . A characteristic chest pain is often present.The causes of pericarditis are varied, including viral infections of the pericardium, idiopathic causes, uremic pericarditis, bacterial infections of the precardium Pericarditis is an inflammation of...
and Behçet's diseaseBehçet's diseaseBehçet's disease is a rare immune-mediated systemic vasculitis that often presents with mucous membrane ulceration and ocular involvements...
. It is also being investigated for its use as an anti-cancerCancerCancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
drug. - Columbine - see Aquilegia.
- Conium maculatumConiumConium is a genus of two species of highly poisonous perennial herbaceous flowering plants in the family Apiaceae, native to Europe and the Mediterranean region as Conium maculatum, and to southern Africa as Conium chaerophylloides....
(commonly known as hemlock, poison hemlock, spotted parsley, spotted cowbane, bad-man's oatmeal, poison snakeweed and beaver poison). All parts of the plant contain the alkaloidAlkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
coniineConiineConiine is a poisonous alkaloid found in poison hemlock and the yellow pitcher plant, and contributes to hemlock's fetid smell. It is a neurotoxin which disrupts the peripheral nervous system. It is toxic to humans and all classes of livestock; less than 0.2g is fatal to humans, with death caused...
which causes stomach pains, vomiting, and progressive paralysis of the central nervous system. Can be fatal; it is the poison that killed SocratesSocratesSocrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary ...
. Not to be confused with hemlock trees (TsugaTsugaTsuga is a genus of conifers in the family Pinaceae. The common name hemlock is derived from a perceived similarity in the smell of its crushed foliage to that of the unrelated plant poison hemlock....
spp), which, while not edible, are not nearly as toxic as the herbaceous plantHerbaceous plantA herbaceous plant is a plant that has leaves and stems that die down at the end of the growing season to the soil level. They have no persistent woody stem above ground...
Conium. - ConsolidaConsolidaConsolida is a genus of about 40 species of annual flowering plants in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae, native from western Europe through the Mediterranean region east to central Asia...
(commonly known as larkspur). Young plants and seeds are poisonous, causing nausea, muscle twitches, paralysis. Often fatal. - Convallaria majalisLily of the ValleyConvallaria majalis , commonly known as the lily-of-the-valley, is a poisonous woodland flowering plant native throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere in Asia and Europe....
(commonly known as lily of the valley). Contains 38 different cardiac glycosides. - Coriaria myrtifoliaCoriaria myrtifoliaCoriaria myrtifolia, called in English redoul, is a shrub to 2–3 m tall. Myrtifolia means myrtle-like leaves.The fruit is a fleshy black berry achene slightly similar to a blackberry but toxic. Coriaria myrtifolia...
(commonly known as redoul). A mediterranean plant containing the toxin coriamyrtin, ingestion of which produces digestive, neurological and respiratory problems. The poisonous fruits superficially resemble blackberries and may mistakenly be eaten as such. Can be fatal in children. - Corn cockle - see Agrostemma githago.
- Corn lily - see Veratrum.
- Cowbane - see Cicuta.
- Cows and bulls - see Arum maculatum.
- Crab's eye - see Abrus precatorius.
- Cuckoo-pint - see Arum maculatum.
- Cyanobacteria A phylumPhylumIn biology, a phylum The term was coined by Georges Cuvier from Greek φῦλον phylon, "race, stock," related to φυλή phyle, "tribe, clan." is a taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. "Phylum" is equivalent to the botanical term division....
of bacteria, commonly known as blue-green algae. Many different species, including Anacystis cynea and Anabaena circinalisAnabaena circinalisAnabaena circinalis is species of cyanobacteria of genus Anabaena. It is capable of producing saxitoxin, which is poisonous to both human and animals....
. Produce several different toxins known collectively as cyanotoxinCyanotoxinCyanotoxins are toxins produced by bacteria called cyanobacteria . Cyanobacteria are found almost everywhere, but particularly in lakes and in the ocean where, under certain conditions, they reproduce exponentially to form blooms. Blooming cyanobacteria can produce cyanotoxins in such...
s. These can include neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, endotoxins and cytotoxins. Potentially hazardous particularly to marine animals, but also to humans. - Cytisus scopariusCytisus scopariusCytisus scoparius, the Common Broom and Scotch Broom, syn. Sarothamnus scoparius, is a perennial leguminous shrub native to western and central Europe,....
(commonly known as broom or common broom). Contains toxic alkaloidAlkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
s that depress the heart and nervous system. The alkaloid sparteine is a class 1a antiarrhythmic agentAntiarrhythmic agentAntiarrhythmic agents are a group of pharmaceuticals that are used to suppress abnormal rhythms of the heart , such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation....
; a sodium channel blocker. It is not FDA approved for human use as an antiarrhythmic agent, and it is not included in the Vaughn Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. - Daffodil - see Narcissus.
- DaphneDaphne (plant)Daphne is a genus of between 50 and 95 species of deciduous and evergreen shrubs in the family Thymelaeaceae, native to Asia, Europe, and north Africa...
. The berries (either red or yellow) are poisonous, causing burns to mouth and digestive tract, followed by coma. Often fatal. - Darnel - see Lolium temulentum.
- DaturaDaturaDatura is a genus of nine species of vespertine flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. Its precise and natural distribution is uncertain, owing to its extensive cultivation and naturalization throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the globe...
Contains the alkaloidAlkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
s scopolamineScopolamineScopolamine, also known as levo-duboisine, and hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug with muscarinic antagonist effects. It is among the secondary metabolites of plants from Solanaceae family of plants, such as henbane, jimson weed and Angel's Trumpets , and corkwood...
and atropineAtropineAtropine is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade , Jimson weed , mandrake and other plants of the family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide variety of effects...
. Datura has been used as a hallucinogenic drug by the native peoples of the Americas and others. Incorrect dosage can lead to death. - Datura stramoniumDatura stramoniumDatura stramonium, known by the common names Jimson weed, devil's trumpet, devil's weed, thorn apple, tolguacha, Jamestown weed, stinkweed, locoweed, datura, pricklyburr, devil's cucumber, Hell's Bells, moonflower and, in South Africa, malpitte and mad seeds, is a common weed in the...
(commonly known as jimson weed, thorn apple, stinkweed and Jamestown weed). All parts of the plant are poisonous, causing abnormal thirst, vision distortions, delirium, incoherence, coma. Often fatal. A significant grazing livestock poison in North America. - Deadly nightshade - see Atropa belladonna.
- Deathcamas - see Zigadenus.
- DelphiniumDelphiniumDelphinium is a genus of about 300 species of perennial flowering plants in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae, native throughout the Northern Hemisphere and also on the high mountains of tropical Africa. The common name, larkspur, is shared with the closely related genus Consolida...
(also known as larkspur). Contains the alkaloid delsoline. Young plants and seeds are poisonous, causing nausea, muscle twitches, paralysis, often fatal. - Dendrocnide moroidesDendrocnide moroidesDendrocnide moroides, also known as the Gympie Gympie, moonlighter, or stinger, is a large shrub native to rainforest areas in northeastern Australia, the Moluccas and Indonesia. It is best known for stinging hairs which cover the whole plant and deliver a potent neurotoxin when touched. It is the...
(also known as stinging tree and gympie gympie). Capable of inflicting a painful sting when touched. The stinging may last for several days and is exacerbated by touching, rubbing, and cold. Can be fatal. - Devils and angels - see Arum maculatum.
- Dicentra cucullariaDicentra cucullariaDicentra cucullaria is a perennial herbaceous plant, native to rich woods of eastern North America, with a disjunct population in the Columbia River Basin....
(also known as bleeding heart and Dutchman's breeches). Leaves and roots are poisonous and cause convulsions and other nervous symptoms. - Dichapetalum cymosumDichapetalum cymosumDichapetalum cymosum, commonly known as Gifblaar from Afrikaans, or occasionally its English translation, poison leaf, is a small prostrate shrub occurring in the northern parts of Southern Africa. It is notable as a common cause of lethal cattle poisoning in this region and is considered one of...
(also known as gifblaar). Well-known as a livestock poison in South Africa; this plant contains the metabolic poison fluoroacetic acid. - DieffenbachiaDieffenbachiaDieffenbachia is a genus of tropical plants in the Family Araceae noted for their patterned leaves. Members of this genus are popular as houseplants because of their tolerance for shade. The common name is "dumb cane" due to its poisoning effect on the throat due to raphides...
(commonly known as dumbcane). All parts are poisonous, causing intense burning, irritation, and immobility of the tongue, mouth, and throat. Swelling can be severe enough to block breathing, leading to death. - Digitalis purpureaDigitalis purpureaDigitalis purpurea , is a flowering plant in the family Plantaginaceae , native to most of Europe.-Description:...
(commonly known as foxglove). The leaves, seeds, and flowers are poisonous, containing cardiacCardiac glycosideCardiac glycosides are drugs used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia. These glycosides are found as secondary metabolites in several plants, but also in some animals, such as the milkweed butterflies. -Function:...
or other steroid glycosideGlycosideIn chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to a non-carbohydrate moiety, usually a small organic molecule. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme...
s. These cause irregular heartbeat, general digestive upset, and confusion. Can be fatal. - Doll's eyes - see Actaea pachypoda.
- Dumbcane - see Dieffenbachia.
- Dutchman's breeches - see Dicentra cucullaria.
- Elder/Elderberry - see Sambucus.
- Euonymus europaeus (commonly known as spindle, European spindle or spindle tree). The fruit is poisonous, containing amongst other substances, the alkaloidAlkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
s theobromineTheobromineTheobromine , also known as xantheose, is a bitter alkaloid of the cacao plant, with the chemical formula C7H8N4O2. It is found in chocolate, as well as in a number of other foods, including the leaves of the tea plant, and the kola nut...
and caffeineCaffeineCaffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that acts as a stimulant drug. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants...
, as well as an extremely bitter terpeneTerpeneTerpenes are a large and diverse class of organic compounds, produced by a variety of plants, particularly conifers, though also by some insects such as termites or swallowtail butterflies, which emit terpenes from their osmeterium. They are often strong smelling and thus may have had a protective...
. Poisonings are more common in young children, who are enticed by the brightly-coloured fruits. Ingestion can result in liver and kidney damage and even death. There are many other species of Euonymus, many of which are also poisonous. - Excoecaria agallochaExcoecariaExcoecaria is a plant genus of the family Euphorbiaceae, comprising about 40 species. The genus is native to the Old World Tropics.The milky sap of Excoecaria agallocha, also known as Thillai, milky mangrove, blind-your-eye mangrove and river poison tree, is poisonous. Mangroves of this plant...
(commonly known as milky mangrove, blind-your-eye mangrove and river poison tree). Contact with milky sap can cause skin irritation and blistering; eye contact can cause temporary blindness. - False acacia - see Robinia pseudoacacia.
- False hellebore - see Veratrum.
- Foxglove - see Digitalis purpurea.
- Frangipani - see Plumeria.
- Gelsemium sempervirens (commonly known as yellow jessamine). All parts are poisonous, causing nausea and vomiting. Often fatal. It is possible to become ill from ingesting honey made from jessamine nectar.
- Giant hogweed - see Heracleum mantegazzianum.
- Giddee giddee - see Abrus precatorius.
- Gifblaar - see Dichapetalum cymosum.
- Greater celandine - see Chelidonium majus.
- Gympie gympie - see Dendrocnide moroides.
- Heart of Jesus - see Caladium.
- Hedera helixIvyIvy, plural ivies is a genus of 12–15 species of evergreen climbing or ground-creeping woody plants in the family Araliaceae, native to western, central and southern Europe, Macaronesia, northwestern Africa and across central-southern Asia east to Japan and Taiwan.-Description:On level ground they...
(or common ivy) The leaves and berries are poisonous, causing stomach pains, labored breathing, possible coma. - Helleborus nigerHelleborus nigerHelleborus niger, commonly called Christmas rose or black hellebore, is an evergreen perennial flowering plant in the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae...
(also known as Christmas rose) Contains protoanemonin, or ranunculin, which has an acrid taste and can cause burning of the eyes, mouth and throat, oral ulceration, gastroenteritisGastroenteritisGastroenteritis is marked by severe inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract involving both the stomach and small intestine resulting in acute diarrhea and vomiting. It can be transferred by contact with contaminated food and water...
and hematemesisHematemesisHematemesis or haematemesis is the vomiting of blood. The source is generally the upper gastrointestinal tract. Patients can easily confuse it with hemoptysis , although the latter is more common.-Signs:...
. - Hemlock - see Conium maculatum
- Hemlock water-dropwort - see Oenanthe crocata.
- Henbane - see Hyoscyamus niger.
- Heracleum mantegazzianum (also known as giant hogweed). The sap is phototoxicPhototoxicPhototoxicity is a chemically induced skin irritation requiring light . The skin response resembles an exaggerated sunburn. The involved chemical may enter into the skin by topical administration or it may reach the skin via systemic circulation following ingestion or parenteral administration...
, causing phytophotodermatitisPhytophotodermatitisPhytophotodermatitis is a chemical reaction which makes skin hypersensitive to ultraviolet light. It is frequently mistaken for hereditary conditions such as atopic dermatitis or chemical burns, but it is caused by contact with the photosensitizing compounds found naturally in some plants and...
(severe skin inflammations) when affected skin is exposed to sunlight or to UV-rays. Initially the skin colours red and starts itching. Then blisters form as reaction continues over 48 hours. They form black or purplish scars, which can last several years. Hospitalisation may become necessary. Presence of minute amounts of sap in the eyes can lead to temporary or even permanent blindness. - Hippomane mancinella (commonly known as manchineel). All parts of this tree, including the fruit, contain toxic phorbolPhorbolPhorbol is a natural, plant-derived organic compound. It is a member of the tigliane family of diterpenes. It was first isolated in 1934 as the hydrolysis product of croton oil, which is derived from the seeds of Croton tiglium. Phorbol's structure was determined in 1967...
esters typical of the EuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceae, the Spurge family are a large family of flowering plants with 300 genera and around 7,500 species. Most are herbs, but some, especially in the tropics, are also shrubs or trees. Some are succulent and resemble cacti....
plant family. Specifically the tree contains 12-deoxy-5-hydroxyphorbol-6gamma, 7alpha-oxide, hippomanins, mancinellin, sapogeninSapogeninSapogenins are the aglycones, or non-saccharide, portions of the family of natural products known as saponins. Sapogenins contain steroid or other triterpene frameworks as their key organic feature. For example, steroidal sapogenins like tiggenin, neogitogenin, and tokorogenin have been isolated...
, phloracetophenone-2, 4-dimethylether is present in the leaves, while the fruits possess physostigminePhysostigminePhysostigmine is a parasympathomimetic alkaloid, specifically, a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor. It occurs naturally in the Calabar bean....
. Contact with the milky white sap produces strong allergic dermatitis. Standing beneath the tree during rain will cause blistering of the skin from even slight contact with this liquid (even a small drop of rain with the milky substance in it will cause the skin to blister). Burning tree parts may cause blindnessBlindnessBlindness is the condition of lacking visual perception due to physiological or neurological factors.Various scales have been developed to describe the extent of vision loss and define blindness...
if the smokeSmokeSmoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires , but may also be used for pest...
reaches the eyes. The fruitFruitIn broad terms, a fruit is a structure of a plant that contains its seeds.The term has different meanings dependent on context. In non-technical usage, such as food preparation, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of certain plants that are sweet and edible in the raw state,...
can also be fatal if eaten. Many trees carry a warning sign, while others have been marked with a red "X" on the trunk to indicate danger. In the French Antilles the trees are often marked with a painted red band a few feet above the ground. The Caribs used the sap of this tree to poison their arrowArrowAn arrow is a shafted projectile that is shot with a bow. It predates recorded history and is common to most cultures.An arrow usually consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front end, with fletchings and a nock at the other.- History:...
s and would tie captives to the trunk of the tree, ensuring a slow and painful death. A poulticePoulticeA poultice, also called cataplasm, is a soft moist mass, often heated and medicated, that is spread on cloth over the skin to treat an aching, inflamed, or painful part of the body. It can be used on wounds such as cuts...
of arrowrootArrowrootArrowroot, or obedience plant , Bermuda arrowroot, araru, ararao, is a large perennial herb found in rainforest habitats...
(Maranta arundinacea) was used by the Arawaks and TaínoTaíno peopleThe Taínos were pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles. It is thought that the seafaring Taínos are relatives of the Arawak people of South America...
as an antidoteAntidoteAn antidote is a substance which can counteract a form of poisoning. The term ultimately derives from the Greek αντιδιδοναι antididonai, "given against"....
against such arrow poisons. The Caribs were also known to poison the water supply of their enemies with the leaves. Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de LeónJuan Ponce de LeónJuan Ponce de León was a Spanish explorer. He became the first Governor of Puerto Rico by appointment of the Spanish crown. He led the first European expedition to Florida, which he named...
was struck by an arrow that had been poisoned with manchineel sap during battle with the CalusaCalusaThe Calusa were a Native American people who lived on the coast and along the inner waterways of Florida's southwest coast. Calusa society developed from that of archaic peoples of the Everglades region; at the time of European contact, the Calusa were the people of the Caloosahatchee culture...
in FloridaFloridaFlorida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
, dying shortly thereafter. - Horse chestnut - see Aesculus hippocastanum.
- Holly (European) - see Ilex aquifolium.
- Hyacinth - see Hyacinthus orientalis.
- Hyacinthus orientalisHyacinthus orientalisHyacinthus orientalis , is a perennial flowering plant, native to southwestern Asia, southern and central Turkey, northwestern Syria, Lebanon and northern Israel. It was introduced to Europe in the 16th century.It is a bulbous plant, with a 3–7 cm diameter bulb...
(commonly known as hyacinth). The bulbs are poisonous, causing nausea, vomiting, gasping, convulsions, and possibly death. Even handling the bulbs can cause skin irritation. - Hyoscyamus niger (commonly known as henbane). Seeds and foliage contain hyoscyamineHyoscyamineHyoscyamine is a tropane alkaloid. It is a secondary metabolite found in certain plants of the Solanaceae family, including henbane , mandrake , jimsonweed , tomato and deadly nightshade...
, scopolamineScopolamineScopolamine, also known as levo-duboisine, and hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug with muscarinic antagonist effects. It is among the secondary metabolites of plants from Solanaceae family of plants, such as henbane, jimson weed and Angel's Trumpets , and corkwood...
and other tropane alkaloids. Can produce dilated pupils, hallucinations, increased heart rate, convulsions, vomiting, hypertensionHypertensionHypertension or high blood pressure is a cardiac chronic medical condition in which the systemic arterial blood pressure is elevated. What that means is that the heart is having to work harder than it should to pump the blood around the body. Blood pressure involves two measurements, systolic and...
and ataxiaAtaxiaAtaxia is a neurological sign and symptom that consists of gross lack of coordination of muscle movements. Ataxia is a non-specific clinical manifestation implying dysfunction of the parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum...
. - Ilex aquifolium (commonly known as European holly). The berries cause gastroenteritisGastroenteritisGastroenteritis is marked by severe inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract involving both the stomach and small intestine resulting in acute diarrhea and vomiting. It can be transferred by contact with contaminated food and water...
, resulting in nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. - Indian licorice - see Abrus precatorius.
- Ivy (Common) - see Hedera helix.
- Jack in the pulpit - see Arum maculatum.
- Jacobaea vulgaris (commonly known as ragwort). Contains many different alkaloidAlkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
s, including jacobine, jaconine, jacozine, otosenine, retrorsine, seneciphylline, senecionineSenecionineSenecionine is an organic compound with the chemical formula C18H25NO5. It is classified as a pyrrolizidine alkaloid....
, and senkirkine.. Poisonous to livestock and hence of concern to people who keep horseHorseThe horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is a single-hooved mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today...
s and cattle. Horses do not normally eat fresh ragwort due to its bitter taste, however it loses this taste when dried, and become dangerous in hay. The result, if sufficient quantity is consumed, can be irreversible cirrhosisCirrhosisCirrhosis is a consequence of chronic liver disease characterized by replacement of liver tissue by fibrosis, scar tissue and regenerative nodules , leading to loss of liver function...
of the liver. Signs that a horse has been poisoned include yellow mucus membranes, depression, and lack of coordination. The danger is that the toxin can have a cumulative effect; the alkaloid does not actually accumulate in the liver but a breakdown product can damage DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
and progressively kills cells. Jacobaea vulgaris is also theoretically poisonous to humans, although poisoning is unlikely as it is distasteful and not used as a food. However some sensitive individuals can suffer from an allergic skin reaction after handling the plant because, like many members of the compositae family, it contains sesquiterpine lactones (which are different from the pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are responsible for the toxic effects), which can cause compositae dermatitis. - Jamestown weed - see Datura stramonium and Datura.
- Jequirity - see Abrus precatorius.
- Jerusalem cherry - see Solanum pseudocapsicum.
- Jimson weed - see Datura stramonium and Datura.
- 'John Crow' Bead - see Abrus precatorius.
- Jumbie bead - see Abrus precatorius.
- Kalanchoe delagoensisKalanchoe delagoensisKalanchoe delagoensis is a succulent plant native to Madagascar. In common with the other members of the Bryophyllum section of the genus Kalanchoe, K. delagoensis is notable for vegetatively growing small plantlets on the fringes of its leaves, leading to its common names of mother of thousands...
(commonly known as mother of millions) Contains bufadienolide cardiac glycosides which can cause cardiac poisonPoisonIn the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
ing, particularly in grazing animals. During 1997, 125 head of cattle died after eating mother-of-millions on a travelling stock reserve near Moree, NSW. - Kalmia latifoliaKalmia latifoliaKalmia latifolia, commonly called Mountain-laurel or Spoonwood, is a species of flowering plant in the blueberry family, Ericaceae, that is native to the eastern United States. Its range stretches from southern Maine south to northern Florida, and west to Indiana and Louisiana. Mountain-laurel is...
(commonly known as mountain laurel). Contains andromedotoxin and arbutinArbutinArbutin is both an ether and a glycoside; a glycosylated hydroquinone extracted from bearberry plant in the genus Arctostaphylos. It inhibits tyrosinase and thus prevents the formation of melanin. Arbutin is therefore used as a skin-lightening agent. Arbutin is found in wheat, and is concentrated...
. The green parts of the plant, flowerFlowerA flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs...
s, twigs, and pollenPollenPollen is a fine to coarse powder containing the microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce the male gametes . Pollen grains have a hard coat that protects the sperm cells during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants or from the male cone to the...
are all toxic, and symptoms of toxicityToxicityToxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage a living or non-living organisms. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ , such as the liver...
begin to appear about 6 hours following ingestion. Poisoning produces anorexiaAnorexia (symptom)Anorexia is the decreased sensation of appetite...
, repeated swallowing, profuse salivation, depression, uncoordination, vomitingVomitingVomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose...
, frequent defecationDefecationDefecation is the final act of digestion by which organisms eliminate solid, semisolid or liquid waste material from the digestive tract via the anus. Waves of muscular contraction known as peristalsis in the walls of the colon move fecal matter through the digestive tract towards the rectum...
, watering of the eyesTearsTears are secretions that clean and lubricate the eyes. Lacrimation or lachrymation is the production or shedding of tears....
, irregular or difficulty breathing, weakness, cardiac distress, convulsionConvulsionA convulsion is a medical condition where body muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in an uncontrolled shaking of the body. Because a convulsion is often a symptom of an epileptic seizure, the term convulsion is sometimes used as a synonym for seizure...
s, comaComaIn medicine, a coma is a state of unconsciousness, lasting more than 6 hours in which a person cannot be awakened, fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light or sound, lacks a normal sleep-wake cycle and does not initiate voluntary actions. A person in a state of coma is described as...
, and eventually death. AutopsyAutopsyAn autopsy—also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy , autopsia cadaverum, or obduction—is a highly specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present...
will show gastrointestinal irritation and hemorrhageBleedingBleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging or haemorrhaging is the loss of blood or blood escape from the circulatory system...
. - LaburnumLaburnumLaburnum is a genus of two species of small trees in the subfamily Faboideae of the pea family Fabaceae, Laburnum anagyroides and L. alpinum . They are native to the mountains of southern Europe from France to the Balkan Peninsula...
. All parts of the plant and especially the seeds are poisonPoisonIn the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
ous and can be lethal if consumed in excess. The main toxin is cytisineCytisineCytisine, also known as baphitoxine and sophorine, is a pyridine-like alkaloid. In medical use, it improves the rate of smoking cessation. It is less effective but much cheaper than similar products. Its structure is similar to nicotine and has similar pharmacological effects...
, a nicotinic receptor agonist. Symptoms of poisoning may include intense sleepiness, vomiting, excitement, staggering, convulsive movements, slight frothing at the mouth, unequally dilated pupils, coma and death. In some cases, diarrhea is very severe and at times the convulsions are markedly tetanic. - Larkspur - see Consolida and Delphinium.
- LigustrumPrivetPrivet was originally the name for the European semi-evergreen shrub Ligustrum vulgare, and later also for the more reliably evergreen Ligustrum ovalifolium , used extensively for privacy hedging. It is often suggested that the name privet is related to private, but the OED states that there is no...
(several species, commonly known as privet). Berries and leaves are poisonous. Berries contain syringinSyringinSyringin is a natural chemical compound first isolated from the bark of lilac by Meillet in 1841. It has since been found to be distributed widely throughout many types of plants. Chemically, it is the glucoside of sinapyl alcohol....
, which causes digestive disturbances, nervous symptoms. Can be fatal. Privet is one of several plants which are poisonous to horseHorseThe horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is a single-hooved mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today...
s. Privet pollen is known to cause asthma and eczema in sufferers. It is banned from sale or cultivation in New Zealand due to the effects of its pollen on asthma sufferers. - LiliumLiliumLilium is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs. Most species are native to the temperate northern hemisphere, though the range extends into the northern subtropics...
(commonly known as lily). Most have an unknown water-soluble toxin found in all parts of the plant. Extremely poisonous, yet attractive, to cats, causing acute renal failure; 2 petals can kill. - Lily - see Lilium.
- Lily of the valley - see Convallaria majalis.
- Lolium temulentumLolium temulentumLolium temulentum, typically known as darnel, poison darnel or cockle, is an annual plant that forms part of the Poaceae family and part of the Lolium genus. The plant stem can grow up to one meter tall, with inflorescence in the ears and purple grain...
(commonly called darnel or poison ryegrass). The seeds and seed heads of this common garden weed may contain the alkaloids temuline and loliine. Some experts also point to the fungus ergotErgotErgot or ergot fungi refers to a group of fungi of the genus Claviceps. The most prominent member of this group is Claviceps purpurea. This fungus grows on rye and related plants, and produces alkaloids that can cause ergotism in humans and other mammals who consume grains contaminated with its...
or fungi of the genus endoconidium, both of which grow on the seed heads of rye grasses, as an additional source of toxicity. - Lords and ladies - see Arum maculatum.
- Madiera winter cherry - see Solanum pseudocapsicum.
- Manchineel tree - see Hippomane mancinella.
- MangoMangoThe mango is a fleshy stone fruit belonging to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The mango is native to India from where it spread all over the world. It is also the most cultivated fruit of the tropical world. While...
tree - Mango peel and sap contains urushiol, the chemical in poison ivy and poison sumac that can cause urushiol-induced contact dermatitis in susceptible people. Cross-reactions between mango contact allergens and urushiol have been observed. Those with a history of poison ivy or poison oak contact dermatitis may be most at risk for such an allergic reaction. Urushiol is also present in mango leaves and stems. During mango's primary ripening season, it is the most common source of plant dermatitis in Hawaii. - Mayapple - see Podophyllum peltatum.
- Meadow saffron - see Colchicum autumnale.
- MenispermumMenispermumMenispermum is a small genus of deciduous climbing woody vines in the moonseed family . Plants in this genus have small dioecious flowers, and clusters of small grape-like drupes. The name, moonseed , comes from the shape of the seed, which resembles a crescent moon...
(commonly known as moonseed). The fruits and seeds are poisonous, causing nausea and vomiting. Often fatal. - Milky mangrove - see Excoecaria agallocha.
- Monkshood - see Aconitum.
- Moonseed - see Menispermum.
- Mother of millions - see Kalanchoe delagoensis.
- Mountain laurel - see Kalmia latifolia.
- Naked boys - see Arum maculatum.
- Narcissus (commonly known as daffodil). Various species and garden cultivars. The bulbs are poisonous and cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Can be fatal. Stems also cause headaches, vomiting, and blurred vision.
- Nerium oleander (commonly known as oleander). All parts are toxic, but especially the leaves and woody stems. Contains nerioside, oleandroside, saponinSaponinSaponins are a class of chemical compounds, one of many secondary metabolites found in natural sources, with saponins found in particular abundance in various plant species...
s and cardiac glycosides. Causes severe digestive upset, heart trouble and contact dermatitisContact dermatitisContact dermatitis is a term for a skin reaction resulting from exposure to allergens or irritants . Phototoxic dermatitis occurs when the allergen or irritant is activated by sunlight....
. The smoke of burning oleander can cause reactions in the lungs, and can be fatal. - Oak - see Quercus.
- Oenanthe crocataWater dropwortThe water dropworts, Oenanthe , are a genus of plants in the family Apiaceae. Most of the species grow in damp ground, in marshes or in water....
(commonly known as hemlock water dropwort). Contains oenanthotoxinOenanthotoxinOenanthotoxin is a toxin extracted from hemlock water dropwort and other plants of the genus Oenanthe. It is a central nervous system poison, and acts as a noncompetitive gamma-aminobutyric acid antagonist. This toxin played some role in euthanasia in ancient Sardinia, for inducing risus...
. The leaves may be eaten safely by livestockLivestockLivestock refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning...
, but the stems and especially the carbohydrate-rich roots are much more poisonous. Animals familiar with eating the leaves may eat the roots when these are exposed during ditch clearance – one root is sufficient to kill a cow, and human fatalities are also known in these circumstances. Scientists at the University of Eastern PiedmontUniversity of Eastern PiedmontThe University of Eastern Piedmont Amedeo Avogadro is a university located in Alessandria, Novara and Vercelli, Italy. It was founded in 1998 and is organized in 7 faculties...
in ItalyItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
claimed to have identified this as the plant responsible for producing the sardonic grinRisus sardonicusRisus sardonicus is a highly characteristic, abnormal, sustained spasm of the facial muscles that appears to produce grinning.The name of the condition derives from the appearance of raised eyebrows and an open "grin" - which can appear malevolent to the lay observer - displayed by those suffering...
, and it is the most-likely candidate for the "sardonic herb," which was a neurotoxicNeurotoxinA neurotoxin is a toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells , usually by interacting with membrane proteins such as ion channels. Some sources are more general, and define the effect of neurotoxins as occurring at nerve tissue...
plant used for the ritual killingHuman sacrificeHuman sacrifice is the act of killing one or more human beings as part of a religious ritual . Its typology closely parallels the various practices of ritual slaughter of animals and of religious sacrifice in general. Human sacrifice has been practised in various cultures throughout history...
of elderly people in PhoeniciaPhoeniciaPhoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
n SardiniaSardiniaSardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is an autonomous region of Italy, and the nearest land masses are the French island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia and the Spanish Balearic Islands.The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *sard[],...
. When these people were unable to support themselves, they were intoxicated with this herb and then dropped from a high rock or beaten to death. Criminals were also executed in this way. - Oleander - see Nerium oleander.
- Ongaonga - see Urtica ferox.
- Passiflora caeruleaPassiflora caeruleaPassiflora caerulea, commonly known as the Blue Passion Flower or the Common Passion Flower, is a vine native to South America...
(also known as the blue passion flower or the common passion flower). The leaves contain cyanogenic glycoside, which breaks down into cyanide. - Passion flower (blue or common) - see Passiflora caerulea.
- Peucedanum galbanumPeucedanum galbanumPeucedanum galbanum, better known as the Blister Bush, is a plant best known for its ability to cause painful blistering after contact. The plant is in the family Apiaceae, subfamily Apioideae...
(commonly known as blister bush). All parts are poisonous, and contact causes painful blistering that is intensified with exposure to sunlight. - Physostigma venenosumCalabar beanThe Calabar bean is the seed of a leguminous plant, Physostigma venenosum, a native of tropical Africa, poisonous to humans. It derives the first part of its scientific name from a curious beak-like appendage at the end of the stigma, in the centre of the flower; this appendage, though solid, was...
(commonly known as calabar bean and also as ordeal beans due to their former use in trials by ordealTrial by ordealTrial by ordeal is a judicial practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused is determined by subjecting them to an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience...
). The toxin in the seeds is the parasympathomimetic alkaloid physostigminePhysostigminePhysostigmine is a parasympathomimetic alkaloid, specifically, a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor. It occurs naturally in the Calabar bean....
, a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor. Symptoms of poisoning include copious saliva, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, anorexiaAnorexia (symptom)Anorexia is the decreased sensation of appetite...
, dizziness, headache, stomach pain, sweating, dyspepsiaDyspepsiaDyspepsia , also known as upset stomach or indigestion, refers to a condition of impaired digestion. It is a medical condition characterized by chronic or recurrent pain in the upper abdomen, upper abdominal fullness and feeling full earlier than expected when eating...
and seizures., and can lead to cholinergic syndrome or "SLUDGE syndrome". Medicinal uses of physostigmine include the treatment of myasthenia gravisMyasthenia gravisMyasthenia gravis is an autoimmune neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating muscle weakness and fatiguability...
, glaucomaGlaucomaGlaucoma is an eye disorder in which the optic nerve suffers damage, permanently damaging vision in the affected eye and progressing to complete blindness if untreated. It is often, but not always, associated with increased pressure of the fluid in the eye...
, Alzheimer's diseaseAlzheimer's diseaseAlzheimer's disease also known in medical literature as Alzheimer disease is the most common form of dementia. There is no cure for the disease, which worsens as it progresses, and eventually leads to death...
and delayed gastric emptying. - PlumeriaPlumeriaPlumeria is a genus of flowering plants of the family that includes Dogbane: the Apocynaceae. It contains 7-8 species of mainly deciduous shrubs and small trees...
(commonly known as frangipani). Contact with the milky sap may irritate eyes and skin. - PhytolaccaPokeweedThe pokeweeds, also known as pokebush, pokeberry, pokeroot, poke sallet, polk salad, polk salat, polk sallet, inkberry or ombú, comprise the genus Phytolacca, perennial plants native to North America, South America, East Asia and New Zealand...
(commonly known as pokeweed). Leaves, berries and roots contain phytolaccatoxin and phytolaccigenin. Toxin in young leaves is reduced with repeated boiling and draining. Ingestion of poisonous parts of the plant may cause severe stomach cramping, persistent diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting (sometimes bloody), slow and difficult breathing, weakness, spasms, hypertensionHypertensionHypertension or high blood pressure is a cardiac chronic medical condition in which the systemic arterial blood pressure is elevated. What that means is that the heart is having to work harder than it should to pump the blood around the body. Blood pressure involves two measurements, systolic and...
, severe convulsions, and death. - Podophyllum peltatum (commonly known as mayapple). Green portions of the plant, unripe fruit, and especially the rhizomeRhizomeIn botany and dendrology, a rhizome is a characteristically horizontal stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes...
contain the non-alkaloid toxin podophyllotoxinPodophyllotoxinPodophyllotoxin , otherwise known as podofilox, is a non-alkaloid toxin lignan extracted from the roots and rhizomes of Podophyllum species. Under the trade name Condylox, a topical gel, it is used on the skin to treat external genital warts, caused by some types of the human papillomavirus...
, which causes diarrhea, severe digestive upset. - Poison hemlock - see Conium maculatum.
- Poison ivy - see Toxicodendron.
- Poison oak - see Toxicodendron.
- Poison parsnip - see Cicuta.
- Poison sumac - see Toxicodendron.
- Poison ryegrass - see Lolium temulentum.
- Pokeweed - see Phytolacca.
- Precatory bean - see Abrus precatorius.
- Privet - see Ligustrum.
- Pteridium aquilinumBrackenBracken are several species of large, coarse ferns of the genus Pteridium. Ferns are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells . Brackens are in the family Dennstaedtiaceae, which are noted for their large, highly...
(commonly known as bracken). Carcinogenic to humans and animals such as mice, rats, horses and cattle when ingested. The carcinogenic compound is ptaquilosidePtaquilosidePtaquiloside, the major toxin of bracken, was first isolated in 1983, and its chemical stereostructure was determined to be norsesquiterpene glucoside of illudane type by Yamada and co-workers....
or PTQ, which can leach from the plant into the water supply, which may explain an increase in the incidence of gastric and oesophageal cancers in humans in bracken-rich areas. - QuercusOakAn oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
(several species, commonly known as oak)). The leaves and acorns of oak species are poisonous in large amounts to humans and livestock, including cattleCattleCattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
, horses, sheep and goatGoatThe domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of...
s, but not pigPigA pig is any of the animals in the genus Sus, within the Suidae family of even-toed ungulates. Pigs include the domestic pig, its ancestor the wild boar, and several other wild relatives...
s. Poisoning is caused by the toxin tannic acidTannic acidTannic acid is a specific commercial form of tannin, a type of polyphenol. Its weak acidity is due to the numerous phenol groups in the structure...
, which causes gastroenteritisGastroenteritisGastroenteritis is marked by severe inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract involving both the stomach and small intestine resulting in acute diarrhea and vomiting. It can be transferred by contact with contaminated food and water...
, heart trouble, contact dermatitis and kidney damage. Symptoms of poisoning include lack of appetiteAnorexia (symptom)Anorexia is the decreased sensation of appetite...
, depression, constipation, diarrhea (which may contain blood), blood in urineHematuriaIn medicine, hematuria, or haematuria, is the presence of red blood cells in the urine. It may be idiopathic and/or benign, or it can be a sign that there is a kidney stone or a tumor in the urinary tract , ranging from trivial to lethal...
, and colic. Rarely fatal however, and in fact after proper processing acorns are consumed as a staple in many parts of the world. - Ragwort - see Jacobaea vulgaris.
- Redoul - see Coriaria myrtifolia.
- RhododendronAzaleaAzaleas are flowering shrubs comprising two of the eight subgenera of the genus Rhododendron, Pentanthera and Tsutsuji . Azaleas bloom in spring, their flowers often lasting several weeks...
(certain species commonly known as Azaleas). All parts are poisonous and cause nausea, vomiting, depression, breathing difficulties, coma. Rarely fatal. - Rhus lancia (commonly known as African sumac). Closely related to poison ivy, all parts of this tree contain low levels of a highly irritating oil with urushiolUrushiolUrushiol is an oily organic allergen found in plants of the family Anacardiaceae, especially Toxicodendron spp. . It causes an allergic skin rash on contact, known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis...
. Skin reactions can include blisters and rashes. It spreads readily to clothes and back again, and has a very long life. Infections can follow scratching. As urushiol is not a poison but an allergenAllergenAn allergen is any substance that can cause an allergy. In technical terms, an allergen is a non-parasitic antigen capable of stimulating a type-I hypersensitivity reaction in atopic individuals....
, it will not affect certain people. The smoke of burning Rhus lancia can cause reactions in the lungs, and can be fatal. - Ricinus communisCastor oil plantThe castor oil plant, Ricinus communis, is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It belongs to a monotypic genus, Ricinus, and subtribe, Ricininae. The evolution of castor and its relation to other species are currently being studied.Its seed is the castor bean which,...
(commonly known as castor oil plant or Palma Christi). The seeds contain ricinRicinRicin , from the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, is a highly toxic, naturally occurring protein. A dose as small as a few grains of salt can kill an adult. The LD50 of ricin is around 22 micrograms per kilogram Ricin , from the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, is a highly toxic, naturally...
, an extremely toxic water-soluble protein. Also present are ricinine, an alkaloid, and an irritant oil. According to the 2007 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records, this plant is the most poisonous in the world. Castor oil, long used as a laxative, muscle rub, and in cosmetics, is made from the seeds, but the ricin is removed during processing. The lethal dose in adults is considered to be 4 to 8 seeds, but reports of actual poisoning are relatively rare. If ingested, symptoms may be delayed by up to 36 hours but commonly begin within 2–4 hours. These include a burning sensation in mouth and throat, abdominal pain, purging and bloody diarrhea. Within several days there is severe dehydration, a drop in blood pressure and a decrease in urine. Unless treated, death can be expected to occur within 3–5 days; if victims have not succumbed after this time, they often recover. In 1978, ricin was used to assassinate Georgi MarkovGeorgi MarkovGeorgi Ivanov Markov was a Bulgarian dissident writer.Markov originally worked as a novelist and playwright, but in 1969 he defected from Bulgaria, then governed by President Todor Zhivkov...
, a Bulgarian dissident. He was stabbed with the point of an umbrella while waiting at a bus stop near Waterloo Station in London. After his death a perforated metallic pellet was found embedded in his leg; this had presumably contained the ricin toxin. Toxicity varies among animal species: 4 seeds will kill a rabbit, 5 a sheep, 6 an ox or horse, 7 a pig, and 11 a dog. Poisoning occurs when animals ingest broken seeds or break the seed by chewing; intact seeds may pass through the digestive tract without releasing the toxin. Ducks have shown substantial resistance to the seeds: it takes an average of 80 to kill them. - River poison tree - see Excoecaria agallocha.
- Robinia pseudoacacia (also known as black locust and false acacia). Pods are toxic.
- Rosary pea - see Abrus precatorius.
- Sambucus (commonly known as elder or elderberry). The roots are considered poisonous and cause nausea and digestive upset.
- Sanguinaria canadensisBloodrootBloodroot is a perennial, herbaceous flowering plant native to eastern North America from Nova Scotia, Canada southward to Florida, United States...
(commonly known as bloodroot). The rhizomeRhizomeIn botany and dendrology, a rhizome is a characteristically horizontal stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes...
contains morphineMorphineMorphine is a potent opiate analgesic medication and is considered to be the prototypical opioid. It was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, first distributed by same in 1817, and first commercially sold by Merck in 1827, which at the time was a single small chemists' shop. It was more...
-like benzylisoquinolineBenzylisoquinoline1-Benzylisoquinoline is a chemical compound, and the structural backbone of many alkaloids with a wide variety of structures, including papaverine, noscapine, codeine, morphine, apomorphine, berberine, protopine and tubocurarine.-Biosynthesis:...
alkaloidAlkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
s, primarily the toxin sanguinarineSanguinarineSanguinarine is a quaternary ammonium salt from the group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids. It is extracted from some plants, including bloodroot , Mexican prickly poppy Argemone mexicana, Chelidonium majus and Macleaya cordata. It is also found in the root, stem and leaves of the opium poppy but...
. Sanguinarine kills animal cells by blocking the action of Na+/K+-ATPase transmembrane proteins. As a result, applying S. canadensis to the skin may destroy tissue and lead to the formation of a large scab, called an escharEscharAn eschar is a slough or piece of dead tissue that is cast off from the surface of the skin, particularly after a burn injury, but also seen in gangrene, ulcer, fungal infections, necrotizing spider bite wounds, and exposure to cutaneous anthrax....
. Although applying escharotic agents, including S. canadensis, to the skin is sometimes suggested as a home treatment for skin cancerSkin cancerSkin neoplasms are skin growths with differing causes and varying degrees of malignancy. The three most common malignant skin cancers are basal cell cancer, squamous cell cancer, and melanoma, each of which is named after the type of skin cell from which it arises...
, these attempts can be severely disfiguring, as well as unsuccessful. Case reports have shown that in such instances tumor has recurred and/or metastasized. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the inclusion of sanguinarine in toothpastes as an antibacterial or anti-plaque agent, although it is believed that this use may cause leukoplakiaLeukoplakiaLeukoplakia is a clinical term used to describe patches of keratosis. It is visible as adherent white patches on the mucous membranes of the oral cavity, including the tongue, but also other areas of the gastro-intestinal tract, urinary tract and the genitals. The clinical appearance is highly...
, a premalignant oral lesion. The safe level of sanguinarine in such products is subject to regulation and debate. S. canadensis extracts have also been promoted by some supplement companies as a treatment or cure for cancer, but the FDA has listed some of these products among its "187 Fake Cancer 'Cures' Consumers Should Avoid". Bloodroot is a popular red natural dyeNatural dyeNatural dyes are dyes or colorants derived from plants, invertebrates, or minerals. The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources – roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood — and other organic sources such as fungi and lichens....
used by Native American artNative American artVisual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas encompasses the visual artistic traditions of the indigenous peoples of the Americas from ancient times to the present...
ists, especially among southeastern rivercane basketmakers. However in spite of supposed curative properties and historical use by Native Americans as an emetic, due to its toxicity internal use is not advisable (sanguinarine has an of only 18 mg per kg body weight). - Solanum dulcamaraSolanum dulcamaraSolanum dulcamara, also known as bittersweet, bittersweet nightshade, bitter nightshade, blue bindweed, Amara Dulcis, climbing nightshade, fellenwort, felonwood, poisonberry, poisonflower, scarlet berry, snakeberry, trailing bittersweet, trailing nightshade, violet bloom, or woody...
(commonly known as bittersweet nightshade). All parts are poisonous, containing solanineSolanineSolanine is a glycoalkaloid poison found in species of the nightshade family , such as the potato . It can occur naturally in any part of the plant, including the leaves, fruit, and tubers. Solanine has fungicidal and pesticidal properties, and it is one of the plant's natural defenses...
and causing fatigue, paralysis, convulsions, and diarrhea. Rarely fatal. - Solanum nigrumBlack nightshadeBlack nightshade may refer to:* Solanum americanum of much of North America* Solanum nigrum of Europe* Solanum ptychanthum of the Caribbean region...
(commonly known as black nightshade). All parts of the plant except the ripe fruit contain the toxic glycoalkaloidGlycoalkaloidGlycoalkaloids are a family of poisons commonly found in the plant species Solanum dulcamara . There are several glycoalkaloids that are potentially toxic. A prototypical glycoalkaloid is called solanine , which is found in potato...
solanineSolanineSolanine is a glycoalkaloid poison found in species of the nightshade family , such as the potato . It can occur naturally in any part of the plant, including the leaves, fruit, and tubers. Solanine has fungicidal and pesticidal properties, and it is one of the plant's natural defenses...
. Solanine poisoning is primarily displayed by gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. Symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vomitingVomitingVomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose...
, stomach cramps, burning of the throat, cardiac dysrhythmiaCardiac dysrhythmiaCardiac dysrhythmia is any of a large and heterogeneous group of conditions in which there is abnormal electrical activity in the heart. The heart beat may be too fast or too slow, and may be regular or irregular.Some arrhythmias are life-threatening medical emergencies that can result in cardiac...
, headache and dizziness. In more severe cases, hallucinationHallucinationA hallucination, in the broadest sense of the word, is a perception in the absence of a stimulus. In a stricter sense, hallucinations are defined as perceptions in a conscious and awake state in the absence of external stimuli which have qualities of real perception, in that they are vivid,...
s, loss of sensation, paralysisParalysisParalysis is loss of muscle function for one or more muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor. A study conducted by the Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation, suggests that about 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed...
, feverFeverFever is a common medical sign characterized by an elevation of temperature above the normal range of due to an increase in the body temperature regulatory set-point. This increase in set-point triggers increased muscle tone and shivering.As a person's temperature increases, there is, in...
, jaundiceJaundiceJaundice is a yellowish pigmentation of the skin, the conjunctival membranes over the sclerae , and other mucous membranes caused by hyperbilirubinemia . This hyperbilirubinemia subsequently causes increased levels of bilirubin in the extracellular fluid...
, dilated pupils and hypothermiaHypothermiaHypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below the required temperature for normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of through biologic homeostasis or thermoregulation...
can result. In large quantities, solanine poisoning can be fatal. - Solanum pseudocapsicum (commonly known as Jerusalem cherry, Madiera winter cherry and winter cherry). All parts, especially the berries, are poisonous, causing nausea and vomiting. It is occasionally fatal, especially to children.
- Spindle tree or spindle - see Euonymus europaeus.
- Starch-root - see Arum maculatum.
- Stinging tree - see Dendrocnide moroides.
- Stinkweed - see Datura stramonium and Datura.
- Strychnine tree - see Strychnos nux-vomica.
- Strychnos nux-vomica (commonly known as the strychnine tree). The seeds usually contain about 1.5% strychnineStrychnineStrychnine is a highly toxic , colorless crystalline alkaloid used as a pesticide, particularly for killing small vertebrates such as birds and rodents. Strychnine causes muscular convulsions and eventually death through asphyxia or sheer exhaustion...
, an extremely bitter and deadly alkaloid. This substance throws a human into intense muscle convulsions and usually kills within three hours. The bark of the tree may also contain brucineBrucineBrucine is a bitter alkaloid closely related to strychnine. It occurs in several plant species, the most well known being the Strychnos nux-vomica tree, found in South-East Asia.While brucine is related to strychnine, it is not as poisonous...
, another dangerous chemical. - Suicide tree - see Cerbera odollam.
- Taxus baccataTaxus baccataTaxus baccata is a conifer native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest Asia. It is the tree originally known as yew, though with other related trees becoming known, it may be now known as the English yew, or European yew.-Description:It is a small-...
(commonly known as English yew, common yew and graveyard tree). Nearly all parts contain toxic taxanes (except the red, fleshy, and slightly sweet arilArilAn aril is any specialized outgrowth from the funiculus that covers or is attached to the seed. It is sometimes applied to any appendage or thickening of the seed coat in flowering plants, such as the edible parts of the mangosteen and pomegranate fruit, the mace of the nutmeg seed, or the...
surrounding the toxic seeds). The seeds themselves are particularly toxic if chewed. Several people have committed suicide by ingesting leaves and seeds,, including Catuvolcus, king of a tribe in what is now BelgiumBelgiumBelgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
. - Thorn apple - see Datura stramonium and Datura.
- Toxicodendron Several species, including Toxicodendron radicans (commonly known as poison ivy), Toxicodendron diversilobum (commonly known as poison-oak), and Toxicodendron vernixPoison SumacPoison sumac is a woody shrub or small tree growing to 7 m tall. All parts of the plant contain a resin called urushiol that causes skin and mucous membrane irritation to humans...
(commonly known as poison sumac). All parts of these plants contain a highly irritating oil with urushiolUrushiolUrushiol is an oily organic allergen found in plants of the family Anacardiaceae, especially Toxicodendron spp. . It causes an allergic skin rash on contact, known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis...
. Skin reactions can include blisters and rashes. It spreads readily to clothes and back again, and has a very long life. Infections can follow scratching. Despite the common names, urushiol is actually not a poison but an allergenAllergenAn allergen is any substance that can cause an allergy. In technical terms, an allergen is a non-parasitic antigen capable of stimulating a type-I hypersensitivity reaction in atopic individuals....
, and because of this it will not affect certain people. The smoke of burning poison ivy can cause reactions in the lungs, and can be fatal. - Urtica ferox (commonly known as ongaonga). Even the lightest touch can result in a painful sting that lasts several days.
- VeratrumVeratrumVeratrum is a genus of coarse, highly poisonous perennial herbs of the Melanthiaceae family. In English they are known as the False hellebores or corn lilies. Members of Veratrum are known both in western herbalism and traditional Chinese medicine as toxic herbs to be used with great caution...
(commonly known as false hellebore and corn lily). Several species, containing highly toxic steroidal alkaloids (e.g. veratridineVeratridineVeratridine is a steroid-derived alkaloid from the family of Liliaceae that functions as a neurotoxin by activating sodium ion channels. It is a derivative of veracevine. It is primarily obtained from the herb Veratrum and sabadilla seeds. It binds to intramembrane receptor site 2 and increases...
) that activate sodium ion channels and cause rapid cardiac failure and death if ingested. All parts of the plant are poisonous, with the root and rhizomeRhizomeIn botany and dendrology, a rhizome is a characteristically horizontal stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes...
s being the most toxic. Symptoms typically occur between 30 minutes and 4 hours after ingestion and include nauseaNauseaNausea , is a sensation of unease and discomfort in the upper stomach with an involuntary urge to vomit. It often, but not always, precedes vomiting...
and vomitingVomitingVomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose...
, abdominal pain, numbness, headacheHeadacheA headache or cephalalgia is pain anywhere in the region of the head or neck. It can be a symptom of a number of different conditions of the head and neck. The brain tissue itself is not sensitive to pain because it lacks pain receptors. Rather, the pain is caused by disturbance of the...
, sweatingSweatingPerspiration is the production of a fluid consisting primarily of water as well as various dissolved solids , that is excreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals...
, muscle weakness, bradycardiaBradycardiaBradycardia , in the context of adult medicine, is the resting heart rate of under 60 beats per minute, though it is seldom symptomatic until the rate drops below 50 beat/min. It may cause cardiac arrest in some patients, because those with bradycardia may not be pumping enough oxygen to their heart...
, hypotensionHypotensionIn physiology and medicine, hypotension is abnormally low blood pressure, especially in the arteries of the systemic circulation. It is best understood as a physiologic state, rather than a disease. It is often associated with shock, though not necessarily indicative of it. Hypotension is the...
, cardiac arrhythmia, and seizures. Treatment for poisoning includes gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal followed by supportive care including fluid replacementFluid replacementFluid replacement or fluid resuscitation is the medical practice of replenishing bodily fluid lost through sweating, bleeding, fluid shifts or other pathologic processes. Fluids can be replaced via oral administration , intravenous administration, rectally, or hypodermoclysis, the direct injection...
, antiemeticAntiemeticAn antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea. Antiemetics are typically used to treat motion sickness and the side effects of opioid analgesics, general anaesthetics, and chemotherapy directed against cancer....
s for persistent nausea and vomiting, atropineAtropineAtropine is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade , Jimson weed , mandrake and other plants of the family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide variety of effects...
for treatment of bradycardia, and vasopressors for the treatment of hypotension. Native Americans used the juice pressed from the roots to poison arrows before combat. The dried powdered root of this plant was also used as an insecticide. The plants' teratogenic properties and ability to induce severe birth defects were well known to Native Americans, although they also used minute amounts of the winter-harvested root (combined with Salvia dorii to potentiate its effects and reduce the toxicity of the herb) to treat cancerous tumors. The toxic steroidal alkaloids are produced only when the plants are in active growth, so herbalists and Native Americans who used this plant for medicinal purposes harvested the roots during the winter months when the levels of toxic constituents were at their lowest. The roots of V. nigrum and V. schindleri have been used in Chinese herbalism (where plants of this genus are known as "li lu" (藜蘆). Li lu is used internally as a powerful emetic of last resort, and topically to kill external parasites, treat tineaTineaTinea is a general term used to describe skin mycoses. The term ringworm is even less precise, but is usually considered a synonym.It is sometimes equated with dermatophytosis, and it is true that most conditions identified as "tinea" are members of the imperfect fungi that make up the dermatophytes...
and scabiesScabiesScabies , known colloquially as the seven-year itch, is a contagious skin infection that occurs among humans and other animals. It is caused by a tiny and usually not directly visible parasite, the mite Sarcoptes scabiei, which burrows under the host's skin, causing intense allergic itching...
, and stop itching. However some herbalists refuse to prescribe li lu internally, citing the extreme difficulty in preparing a safe and effective dosage, and that death has occurred at a dosage of 0.6 grams. During the 1930s Veratrum extracts were investigated in the treatment of high blood pressure in humans. However patients often suffered side effects due to the narrow therapeutic indexTherapeutic indexThe therapeutic index is a comparison of the amount of a therapeutic agent that causes the therapeutic effect to the amount that causes death or toxicity ....
of these products. Due to its toxicity, the use of Veratrum as a treatment for high blood pressure in humans was discontinued. - Wake robin - see Arum maculatum.
- Water hemlock - see Cicuta.
- White baneberry - see Actaea pachypoda.
- White snakeroot - see Ageratina altissima.
- Wild arum - see Arum maculatum.
- Winter cherry - see Solanum pseudocapsicum.
- Wolfsbane - see Aconitum.
- XanthiumCockleburCockleburs are a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia.-Growth:They are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 19.69-47.24 in tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with a deeply toothed margin. Some species, notably X...
(commonly known as cocklebur). Several species. The Common Cocklebur (X. strumarium), a native of North America, can be poisonPoisonIn the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
ous to livestockLivestockLivestock refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning...
, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigPigA pig is any of the animals in the genus Sus, within the Suidae family of even-toed ungulates. Pigs include the domestic pig, its ancestor the wild boar, and several other wild relatives...
s, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nauseaNauseaNausea , is a sensation of unease and discomfort in the upper stomach with an involuntary urge to vomit. It often, but not always, precedes vomiting...
and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death. Xanthium has also been used for its medicinal properties and for making yellow dye, as indicated by its name (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). - Yellow jessamine - see Gelsemium sempervirens.
- Yew - see Taxus baccata.
- ZantedeschiaZantedeschiaZantedeschia is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants in the family Araceae, native to southern Africa from South Africa north to Malawi. The name of the genus was given as a tribute to Italian botanist Giovanni Zantedeschi by the German botanist Kurt Sprengel . Common names include arum lily...
(several species, also known as Lily of the Nile and Calla lily). Contain calcium oxalateCalcium oxalateCalcium oxalate is a chemical compound that forms needle-shaped crystals, known in plants as raphides. A major constituent of human kidney stones, the chemical is also found in beerstone, a scale that forms on containers used in breweries...
. All parts of the plant are toxic, producing irritation and swelling of the mouth and throat, acute vomiting and diarrhoea. Can be fatal. - Zigadenus (commonly known as black snakeroot or deathcamas). All parts of the plant are poisonous, causing nausea, severe upset.
See also
- List of plants poisonous to equines
- List of poisonous fungi
- Mushroom poisoningMushroom poisoningMushroom poisoning refers to harmful effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells...
- PoisonPoisonIn the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
- Psychedelic plantsPsychedelic plantsA list of plants that are used for psychedelic drugs. Some of them have been used for thousands of years for religious purposes. The plants are listed according to the substances they contain.-THC:Cannabis is a popular psychedelic plant...
- ToxinToxinA toxin is a poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms; man-made substances created by artificial processes are thus excluded...
- WeedWeedA weed in a general sense is a plant that is considered by the user of the term to be a nuisance, and normally applied to unwanted plants in human-controlled settings, especially farm fields and gardens, but also lawns, parks, woods, and other areas. More specifically, the term is often used to...