The major systems of the
human bodyThe human body is the entire structure of a human organism, and consists of a head, neck, torso, two arms and two legs.By the time the human reaches adulthood, the body consists of close to 10 trillion cells, the basic unit of life...
are:
- Cardiovascular system: the blood circulation with heart
The heart is a muscular organ found in all vertebrates that is responsible for pumping blood throughout the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions...
, arteriesArteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. All arteries, with the exception of the pulmonary and umbilical arteries, carry oxygenated blood.The circulatory system is extremely important for sustaining life...
and veinIn the circulatory system, veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood...
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- Digestive system: processing food with mouth
The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up the solid food particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva...
, esophagusThe esophagus or oesophagus , sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in vertebrates which consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. The word esophagus is derived from the Latin œsophagus, which derives from the Greek word oisophagos , lit...
, stomachIn most mammals, the stomach is a hollow, muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract , between the esophagus and the small intestine. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication . The word stomach is derived from the Latin stomachus, which derives from the Greek word...
and intestineIn anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the stomach to the anus and, in humans and other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine...
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- Endocrine system
The endocrine system is a system of glands that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones.The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development, puberty, tissue function, internal environment and also plays a part in determining...
: communicating within the body using hormoneA hormone is a chemical released by one or more cells that affects cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organisms...
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- Urinary system
The urinary system is the organ system that produces, stores, and eliminates urine. In humans it includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, the urethra, and the penis in males...
: eliminating wastes from the body
- Immune system
An immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumour cells. It detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and needs to distinguish them from the organism's own...
: defending against disease-causing agents
- Integumentary system
The integumentary system is the organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising the skin and its appendages...
: skinThe skin is the outer covering of the body. In humans, it is the largest organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of mesodermal tissue, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs. Skin of a different nature exists in amphibians, reptiles, birds...
, hairHair is a protein filament that grows through the epidermis from follicles deep within the dermis. The fine, soft hair found on many nonhuman mammals is typically called fur; wool is the characteristically curly hair found on sheep and goats. Found exclusively in mammals, hair is one of the...
and nailA nail is a horn-like structure at the end of a person's finger or toe. See also claw.-Parts of the nail:Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protein called keratin, as are animals' hooves and horns. Along with hair and teeth they are an appendage of the skin. The parts of the nail...
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- Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system in vertebrates is a network of conduits that carry a clear fluid called lymph. It also includes the lymphoid tissue through which the lymph travels. Lymphoid tissue is found in many organs, particularly the lymph nodes, and in the lymphoid follicles associated with the...
- Muscular system
The muscular system is the anatomical system of a species that allows it to move. The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some muscles can be completely autonomous.- Muscles :...
: moving the body with muscleMuscle is the contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
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- Nervous system
The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that communicate information about an organism's surroundings and itself. It processes this information and causes reactions in other parts of the body. It is composed of neurons and other specialized cells called glial cells that aid in the...
: collecting, transferring and processing information with brainThe brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfish have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all...
and nerveA nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of peripheral axons . A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of the axons. Nerves are found only in the peripheral nervous system...
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- Reproductive system
The reproductive system is a system of organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive system. Unlike most organ systems, the sexes of differentiated...
: the sex organA sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined, is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute the reproductive system in a complex organism; in mammals, these include:*Female...
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- Respiratory system
The respiratory systems function is to allow gas exchange to all parts of the body. The space between the alveoli & the capillaries, the anatomy or structure of the exchange system, and the precise physiological uses of the exchanged gases vary depending on the organism...
: the organs used for breathing, the lungThe lung or pulmonary system is the essential respiration organ in air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located in the chest on either side of the heart...
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- Skeletal system: structural support and protection through bone
Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue...
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The detailed list of
human anatomicalHuman anatomy, which, with physiology and biochemistry, is a complementary basic medical science is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy...
features below is adapted from the table of contents of the 6969
public domainThe public domain is a range of abstract materials—commonly referred to as intellectual property—which are not owned or controlled by anyone. The term indicates that these materials are therefore "public property", and available for anyone to use for any purpose...
edition of
Gray's AnatomyHenry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body, commonly shortened to Gray's Anatomy, is an English-language human anatomy textbook widely regarded as a classic work on the subject....
.
EmbryologyEmbryology is the study of the development of an embryo. An embryo is defined as any organism in an early stage well before birth or hatching, or in plants, before germination occurs....
- The cell
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos...
- The ovum
An ovum is a haploid female reproductive cell or gamete. Both animals and embryophytes have ova. The term ovule is used for the young ovum of an animal, as well as the plant structure that carries the female gametophyte and egg cell and develops into a seed after fertilization...
- The spermatozoön
A sperm, from the ancient Greek word σπέρμα and and more commonly known as a sperm cell, is the haploid cell that is the male gamete. It joins an ovum to form a zygote. A zygote is a single cell, with a complete set of chromosomes, that normally develops into an embryo.Sperm cells contribute...
- Fertilization of the ovum
- Segmentation of the fertilized ovum
- The neural groove
Between the neural folds is a shallow median groove, the neural groove. The groove gradually deepens as the neural folds become elevated, and ultimately the folds meet and coalesce in the middle line and convert the groove into a closed tube, the neural tube or canal, the ectodermal wall of which...
and neural tubeIn the developing vertebrate, the neural tube is the embryo's precursor to the central nervous system, which comprises the brain and spinal cord...
- The notochord
The notochord is a flexible, rod-shaped body found in embryos of all chordates. It is composed of cells derived from the mesoderm and defines the primitive axis of the embryo. In some chordates, it persists throughout life as the main axial support of the body, while in most vertebrates it is...
- The primitive segments
- Separation of the embryo
An embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of first cell division until birth, hatching, or germination...
- The yolk-sac
- Development of the fetal membranes and placenta
The placenta is an organ unique to mammals that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall. The placenta supplies the fetus with oxygen and food, and allows fetal waste to be disposed of via the maternal kidneys...
- The branchial region
- Development of the body cavities
- The form of the embryo at different stages of its growth
OsteologyOsteology is the scientific study of bones. A subdiscipline of anthropology and archeology, osteology is a detailed study of the structure of bones, skeletal elements, teeth, morphology, function, disease, pathology, the process of ossification , the resistance and hardness of bones , etc...
- Bone
Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue...
- The vertebral column
In human anatomy, the vertebral column is a column usually consisting of 33 vertebrae, the sacrum, intervertebral discs, and the coccyx situated in the dorsal aspect of the torso, separated by spinal discs...
- General characteristics of a vertebra
- The cervical vertebrae
In vertebrates, cervical vertebrae are those vertebrae immediately inferior to the skull.-Variation among species:In some species, some parts of the skull may be composed of vertebra-like elements, e.g...
- The thoracic vertebrae
The 12 thoracic vertebrae compose the middle segment of the vertebral column, between the cervical vertebrae and the lumbar vertebrae. They are intermediate in size between those of the cervical and lumbar regions; they increase in size as one proceeds down the spine, the upper vertebrae being...
- The lumbar vertebrae
The lumbar vertebrae are the largest segments of the movable part of the vertebral column, and are characterized by the absence of the foramen transversarium within the transverse process, and by the absence of facets on the sides of the body...
- The sacral vertebrae
- The coccygeal vertebrae
- The vertebral column as a whole
- The thorax
The thorax is a division of an animal's body that lies between the head and the abdomen.In mammals, the thorax is the region of the body formed by the sternum, the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs. It extends from the neck to the diaphragm, and does not include the upper limbs. The heart and the...
- The sternum
The sternum is a long flat bone shaped like a capital 'T' located in the center of the thorax...
- The ribs
- The costal cartilages
The costal cartilages are bars of hyaline cartilage which serve to prolong the ribs forward and contribute very materially to the elasticity of the walls of the thorax.-Differences from 1-12:...
- The skull
The skull is a bony structure found in the head of many animals. The skull supports the structures of the face and protects the head against injury....
- The cranial bones
- The occipital bone
The occipital bone, a saucer-shaped membrane bone situated at the back and lower part of the cranium, is trapezoid in shape and curved on itself...
- The parietal bone
The parietal bones are bones in the human skull and form, by their union, the sides and roof of the cranium. Each bone is irregularly quadrilateral in form, and has two surfaces, four borders, and four angles.-External:The external surface [Fig...
- The frontal bone
The frontal bone is a bone in the human skull that resembles a cockleshell in form, and consists of two portions:* a vertical portion, the squama frontalis, corresponding with the region of the forehead....
- The temporal bone
The temporal bones are situated at the sides and base of the skull.The temporal bone supports that part of the face known as the temple.-Parts:Each consists of four parts:* Squama temporalis* Mastoid portion* Petrous portion* Tympanic part...
- The sphenoid bone
The sphenoid bone is an unpaired bone situated at the base of the skull in front of the temporal bone and basilar part of the occipital bone.The sphenoid bone is one of the seven bones that articulate to form the orbit...
- The ethmoid bone
The ethmoid bone is a bone in the skull that separates the nasal cavity from the brain. As such, it is located at the roof of the nose, between the two orbits. The cubical bone is lightweight due to a spongy construction...
- The facial bones
- The nasal bone
The nasal bones are two small oblong bones, varying in size and form in different individuals; they are placed side by side at the middle and upper part of the face, and form, by their junction, "the bridge" of the nose.Each has two surfaces and four borders....
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- The maxillae (upper jaw)
- The lacrimal bone
The lacrimal bone, the smallest and most fragile bone of the face, is situated at the front part of the medial wall of the orbit. It has two surfaces and four borders.- Lateral or orbital surface :...
- The zygomatic bone
The zygomatic bone is a paired bone of the human skull. It articulates with the maxilla, the temporal bone, the sphenoid bone and the frontal bone. The zygomatic is homologous to the jugal bone of other tetrapods...
- The palatine bone
The palatine bone is a bone in many species of the animal kingdom, commonly termed the palatum .-Human anatomy:...
- The inferior nasal concha
- The vomer
The vomer is one of the unpaired facial bones of the skull. It is located in the midsagittal line, and articulates with the sphenoid, the ethmoid, the left and right palatine bones, and the left and right maxillary bones.-Biology:...
- The mandible
The mandible or inferior maxillary bone forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. It also refers to both the upper and lower sections of the beaks of birds; in this case the "lower mandible" corresponds to the mandible of humans while the "upper mandible" is functionally equivalent...
(lower jaw)
- The hyoid bone
The hyoid bone is a horseshoe shaped bone situated in the anterior midline of the neck between the chin and the thyroid cartilage. At rest, it lies at the level of the base of the mandible in the front and the third cervical vertebra behind.It is the only bone in the human skeleton not...
- The exterior of the skull
- The interior of the skull
- The extremities
- The bones of the upper extremity
- The clavicle
In human anatomy, the clavicle or collar bone is classified as a long bone that makes up part of the shoulder girdle . It receives its name from the Latin clavicula because the bone rotates along its axis like a key when the shoulder is abducted. This movement is palpable...
- The scapula
In anatomy, the scapula, omo , or shoulder blade, is the bone that connects the humerus with the clavicle ....
- The humerus
The humerus is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow....
- The ulna
The ulna is a long bone, prismatic in form. In anatomical position the ulna is placed at the medial side of the forearm closest to the body, parallel with the radius on both arms.-Articulations:The ulna articulates with:...
- The radius
The radius is the bone of the forearm that extends from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist. The radius is situated on the lateral side of the ulna, which exceeds it in length and size. It is a long bone, prism-shaped and slightly curved longitudinally...
- The hand
The hands are the two intricate, prehensile, multi-fingered body parts normally located at the end of each arm of a primate. They are the chief organs for physically manipulating the environment, used for both gross motor skills and fine motor skills...
- The carpus
In tetrapods, the carpals is the sole cluster of the bones in the wrist between the radius and ulna and the metacarpus. The bones of the carpus do not belong to individual fingers , whereas those of the metacarpus do. The corresponding part of the foot is the tarsus...
- The metacarpus
The metacarpus is the intermediate part of the hand skeleton that is located between the phalanges distally and the carpus which forms the connection to the forearm. The metacarpus consists of metacarpal bones....
- The phalanges of the hand
The phalanges of the hand are commonly known as the finger bones. There are fourteen in number, three for each finger, and two for the thumb.Each consists of a body and two extremities....
- The bones of the lower extremity
- The hip bone
The hip bone, innominate bone or coxal bone is a large, flattened, irregularly shaped bone, constricted in the center and expanded above and below...
- The pelvis
In human anatomy, the pelvis is the part of the trunk inferioposterior to the abdomen in the transition area between the trunk and the lower limbs...
- The femur
The femur, or thigh bone, is the most proximal bone of the leg in vertebrates capable of walking or jumping, such as most land mammals, birds, many reptiles such as lizards, and amphibians such as frogs...
- The patella
The patella, also known as the knee cap or kneepan, is a thick, circular-triangular bone which articulates with the femur and covers and protects the knee joint. It is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body. It is attached to the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle, which contracts to...
- The tibia
The tibia, shinbone, or shankbone is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates and connects the knee with the ankle bones.The tibia is named for the greek aulos flute, also known as a tibia.-In humans:...
- The fibula
The fibula or calf bone is a bone located on the lateral side of the tibia, with which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones, and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones...
- The foot
The foot is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion...
- The tarsus
In tetrapods, the tarsus are the cluster of bones in the foot between the tibia and fibula and the metatarsus. The bones of the tarsus do not belong to individual toes, whereas those of the metatarsus do...
- The metatarsus
The metatarsus or metatarsal bones are a group of five long bones in the foot located between the tarsal bones of the hind- and mid-foot and the phalanges of the toes. Lacking individual names, the metatarsal bones are numbered from the medial side : the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth...
- The phalanges of the foot
The phalanges of the foot correspond, in number and general arrangement, with those of the hand; there are two in the big toe, and three in each of the other toes...
- The sesamoid bone
In anatomy, a sesamoid bone is a bone embedded within a tendon.Sesamoid bones are found in locations where a tendon passes over a joint, such as the hand, knee, and foot. Functionally, they act to protect the tendon and to increase its mechanical effect...
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Syndesmology
- Development of the joints
- Classification of joints
- The kind of movement admitted in joints
- Articulations of the trunk
- Articulations of the vertebral column
- Articulation of the atlas with the epistropheus or axis
- Articulations of the vertebral column with the cranium
- Articulation of the mandible
- Costovertebral articulations
- Sternocostal articulations
- Articulation of the manubrium and body of the sternum
- Articulation of the vertebral column with the pelvis
- Articulations of the pelvis
- Articulations of the upper extremity
- Sternoclavicular articulation
- Acromioclavicular articulation
- Humeral articulation or shoulder-joint
- Elbow-joint
- Radioulnar articulation
- Radiocarpal articulation or wrist-joint
- Intercarpal articulations
- Carpometacarpal articulations
- Intermetacarpal articulations
- Metacarpophalangeal articulations
- Articulations of the digits
- Articulations of the lower extremity
- Coxal articulation or hip-joint
- The knee-joint
- Articulations between the tibia and fibula
- Talocrural articulation or ankle-joint
- Intertarsal articulations
- Tarsometatarsal articulations
- Intermetatarsal articulations
- Metatarsophalangeal articulations
- Articulations of the digits
- Arches of the foot
MyologyMyology is the specialised study of muscles and muscle tissue.The muscular system consists of skeletal muscles that act to move or position parts of the body , or smooth and cardiac muscle that propels, expels, or controls the flow of fluids and contained substance....
- Mechanics of muscle
Muscle is the contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
- Development of the muscles
- Tendons, aponeuroses, and fasciae
- The fasciae and muscles of the head.
- The muscles of the scalp
The scalp is the anatomical area bordered by the face anteriorly and the neck to the sides and posteriorly.-Layers:It is usually described as having five layers, which can be remembered with the mnemonic "SCALP":....
- The muscles of the eyelid
An eyelid is a thin fold of skin that covers and protects an eye. With the exception of the prepuce and the labia minora, it has the thinnest skin of the whole body. The levator palpebrae superioris muscle retracts the eyelid to "open" the eye. This can be either voluntarily or involuntarily...
- The muscles of the nose
Anatomically, a nose is a protuberance in vertebrates that houses the nostrils, or nares, which admit and expel air for respiration in conjunction with the mouth....
- The muscles of the mouth
The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up the solid food particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva...
- The muscles of mastication
Mastication or chewing is the process by which food is crushed and ground by teeth. It is the first step of digestion and it increases the surface area of foods to allow more efficient break down by enzymes. During the mastication process, the food is positioned between the teeth for grinding by...
- The fasciae and muscles of the anterolateral region of the neck
- The superficial cervical muscle
- The lateral cervical muscles
- The supra- and infrahyoid muscles
- The anterior vertebral muscles
- The lateral vertebral muscles
- The fasciae and muscles of the trunk
- The deep muscles of the back
- The suboccipital muscle
Suboccipital muscles refers to the muscles located below the occipital bone. The muscles are named: Rectus capitis posterior major, Rectus capitis posterior minor, Obliquus capitis inferior, and Obliquus capitis superior. There is also a Suboccipital triangle....
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- The muscles of the thorax
- The muscles and fasciae of the abdomen
In vertebrates such as mammals the abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis. The region enclosed by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity...
- The muscles and fasciae of the pelvis
In human anatomy, the pelvis is the part of the trunk inferioposterior to the abdomen in the transition area between the trunk and the lower limbs...
- The muscles and fasciae of the perineum
In human anatomy, the perineum is generally defined as the surface region in both males and females between the pubic symphysis and the coccyx. The perineum is the region of the body inferior to the pelvic diaphragm and between the legs. It is a diamond-shaped area on the inferior surface of the...
- The fascia and muscles of the upper extremity
- The muscles connecting the upper extremity to the vertebral column
- The muscles connecting the upper extremity to the anterior and lateral thoracic walls
- The muscles and fasciae of the shoulder
In human anatomy, the shoulder joint comprises the part of the body where the humerus attaches to the scapula. The shoulder refers to the group of structures in the region of the joint....
- The muscles and fasciae of the arm
In anatomy, an arm is one of the upper limbs of an animal. The term arm can also be used for analogous structures, such as one of the paired upper limbs of a four-legged animal, or the arms of cephalopods....
- The muscles and fasciae of the forearm
The forearm is the structure and distal region of the upper limb, between the elbow and the wrist.. The term forearm is used in anatomy to distinguish it from the arm which is often misused to describe the entire appendage of the upper limb and technically means only the region of the upper arm...
- The muscles and fasciae of the hand
The hands are the two intricate, prehensile, multi-fingered body parts normally located at the end of each arm of a primate. They are the chief organs for physically manipulating the environment, used for both gross motor skills and fine motor skills...
- The muscles and fasciae of the lower extremity.
- The muscles and fasciae of the iliac region
- The muscles and fasciae of the thigh
In humans the thigh is the area between the pelvis and the knee. Anatomically, it is part of the lower limb.The single bone in the thigh is called the femur...
- The muscles and fasciae of the leg
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- The fasciae around the ankle
In human anatomy, the ankle joint is formed where the foot and the leg meet. The ankle, or talocrural joint, is a synovial hinge joint that connects the distal ends of the tibia and fibula in the lower limb with the proximal end of the talus bone in the foot...
- The muscles and fasciae of the foot
The foot is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion...
AngiologyAngiology is the medical specialty which studies the diseases of circulatory system and of the lymphatic system, i.e., arteries, veins and lymphatic vases, and its diseases....
- The blood
Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells — such as nutrients and oxygen — and transports waste products away from those same cells....
- Development of the vascular system
- The thoracic cavity
The thoracic cavity is the chamber of the human body that is protected by the thoracic wall .-Components:Structures within the thoracic cavity include:...
- The pericardium
The pericardium is a double-walled sac that contains the heart and the roots of the great vessels.-Layers:There are two layers to the pericardial sac: the fibrous pericardium and the serous pericardium...
- The heart
The heart is a muscular organ found in all vertebrates that is responsible for pumping blood throughout the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions...
- Peculiarities in the vascular system in the fetus
A fetus is a developing mammal or other viviparous vertebrate after the embryonic stage and before birth. The plural is fetuses....
The ArteriesArteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. All arteries, with the exception of the pulmonary and umbilical arteries, carry oxygenated blood.The circulatory system is extremely important for sustaining life...
- The aorta
The aorta is the largest artery in the body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart and bringing oxygenated blood to all parts of the body in the systemic circulation....
- The arteries of the head and neck
The neck is the part of the body on many terrestrial or secondarily aquatic vertebrates that distinguishes the head from the torso or trunk. The Latin term signifying "of the neck" is cervical.-Bony anatomy: The cervical spine:...
- The common carotid artery
In human anatomy, the common carotid artery is an artery that supplies the head and neck with oxygenated blood; it divides in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries.- Structure :...
- Relations
- The external carotid artery
In human anatomy, the external carotid artery is a major artery of the head and neck. It arises from the common carotid artery when it bifurcates into the external and internal carotid artery.-Course:...
- The triangles of the neck
Anatomists use the term triangles of the neck to describe the divisions created by the major muscles in the region.The side of the neck presents a somewhat quadrilateral outline, limited, above, by the lower border of the body of the mandible, and an imaginary line extending from the angle of the...
- The internal carotid artery
In human anatomy, the internal carotid artery is a major artery of the head and neck that helps supply blood to the brain.-Classification:Terminologia Anatomica currently breaks the artery into four parts: "cervical", "petrous", "cavernous", and "cerebral"...
- The arteries of the brain
- The arteries of the upper extremity
- The subclavian artery
In human anatomy, the subclavian artery is a major artery of the upper thorax that mainly supplies blood to the head and arms. It is located below the clavicle, hence the name...
- The axilla
- The axillary artery
In human anatomy, the axillary artery is a large blood vessel that conveys oxygenated blood to the lateral aspect of the thorax, the axilla and the upper limb...
- The brachial artery
The brachial artery is the major blood vessel of the arm.It is the continuation of the axillary artery beyond the lower margin of teres major muscle. It continues down the ventral surface of the arm until it reaches the cubital fossa at the elbow. It then divides into the radial and ulnar arteries...
- The radial artery
In human anatomy, the radial artery is the main blood vessel, with oxygenated blood, of the lateral aspect of the forearm.-Course:The radial artery arises from the bifurcation of the brachial artery in the cubital fossa. It runs distally on the anterior part of the forearm...
- The ulnar artery
The ulnar artery is the main blood vessel, with oxygenated blood, of the medial aspect of the forearm. It arises from the brachial artery and terminates in the superficial palmar arch, which joins with the superficial branch of the radial artery...
- The arteries of the trunk
- The descending aorta
The descending aorta is part of the aorta, the largest artery in the body. The descending aorta is the part of the aorta beginning at the aortic arch that runs down through the chest and abdomen. The descending aorta is divided into two portions, the thoracic and abdominal, in correspondence with...
- The thoracic aorta
The thoracic aorta is contained in the posterior mediastinal cavity.It begins at the lower border of the fourth thoracic vertebra where it is continuous with the aortic arch, and ends in front of the lower border of the twelfth thoracic vertebra, at the aortic hiatus in the diaphragm where it...
- The abdominal aorta
The abdominal aorta is the largest artery in the abdominal cavity. As part of the aorta, it is a direct continuation of descending aorta.-Path:...
- The common iliac arteries
- The hypogastric artery
- The external iliac artery
The external iliac artery is a large artery in the pelvic region that carries blood to the lower limb.The external iliac artery is a paired artery, meaning there is one on each side of the body: a right external iliac artery and left external iliac artery.The external iliac artery is accompanied by...
- The arteries of the lower extremity
- The femoral artery
The femoral artery is a large artery in the muscles of the thigh. It is a continuation of external iliac artery where it enters the femoral triangle at the mid inguinal point behind the inguinal ligament. It leaves femoral triangle through apex beneath the sartorius muscle...
- The popliteal fossa
The popliteal fossa is a space or shallow depression located at the back of the knee-joint. The bones of the popliteal fossa are the femur and the tibia. Colloquially, it is referred to as a "knee pit."-Boundaries:The boundaries of the fossa are:-Roof:...
- The popliteal artery
In human anatomy, the popliteal artery is defined as the extension of the "superficial" femoral artery after passing through the adductor canal and adductor hiatus above the knee...
- The anterior tibial artery
The anterior tibial artery of the lower limb carries blood to the anterior compartment of the leg and dorsal surface of the foot, from the popliteal artery.It is accompanied by a deep vein, the anterior tibial vein, along its course....
- The arteria dorsalis pedis
- The posterior tibial artery
The posterior tibial artery of the lower limb carries blood to the posterior compartment of the leg and plantar surface of the foot, from the popliteal artery...
The VeinIn the circulatory system, veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood...
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- The pulmonary vein
A pulmonary vein is a large blood vessel of the human circulatory system that carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. There are four pulmonary veins, two from each lung. They carry oxygenated blood, which is unusual since almost all other veins carry deoxygenated...
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- The systemic veins
- The veins of the heart
- The veins of the head and neck
- The veins of the exterior of the head and face
- The veins of the neck
- The diploic veins
The diploic veins are found in the skull, and drain the diploic space. This is found in the bones of the vault of the skull, and is the marrow-containing area of cancellous bone between the inner and outer layers of compact bone....
- The veins of the brain
- The sinuses of the dura mater. ophthalmic veins and emissary veins
- The veins of the upper extremity and thorax
- The veins of the lower extremity, abdomen, and pelvis
- The portal system of veins
The Lymphatic systemThe lymphatic system in vertebrates is a network of conduits that carry a clear fluid called lymph. It also includes the lymphoid tissue through which the lymph travels. Lymphoid tissue is found in many organs, particularly the lymph nodes, and in the lymphoid follicles associated with the...
- The thoractic duct
- The lymphatics of the head, face, and neck
- The lymphatics of the upper extremity
- The lymphatics of the lower extremity
- The lymphatics of the abdomen
In vertebrates such as mammals the abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis. The region enclosed by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity...
and pelvisIn human anatomy, the pelvis is the part of the trunk inferioposterior to the abdomen in the transition area between the trunk and the lower limbs...
- The lymphatic vessels of the thorax
NeurologyNeurology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue,...
- Structure of the nervous system
The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that communicate information about an organism's surroundings and itself. It processes this information and causes reactions in other parts of the body. It is composed of neurons and other specialized cells called glial cells that aid in the...
- Development of the nervous system
- The spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the brain. The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system. It is around 45 cm long in men and around 43 cm long in women. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter than...
or medulla spinalis
- The brain
The human brain is the center of the human nervous system and is a highly complex organ. Enclosed in the cranium, it has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over three times as large as the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent body size...
or encephalon
- The hindbrain or rhombencephalon
The rhombencephalon is a developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system in vertebrates.The rhombencephalon can be subdivided in a variable number of transversal swellings called rhombomeres...
- The midbrain or mesencephalon
In biological anatomy, the mesencephalon comprises the tectum , tegmentum, the ventricular mesocoelia , and the cerebral peduncles, as well as several nuclei and fasciculi...
- The forebrain or prosencephalon
In the anatomy of the brain of vertebrates, the prosencephalon is the rostral-most portion of the brain. The prosencephalon, the mesencephalon , and rhombencephalon are the three primary portions of the brain during early development of the central nervous system...
- Composition and central connections of the spinal nerve
The term spinal nerve generally refers to the mixed spinal nerve, which is formed from the dorsal and ventral roots that come out of the spinal cord. The spinal nerve is the bit that passes out of the vertebrae through the intervertebral foramen. All spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous...
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- Composition and central connections of the spinal nerves
- Pathways from the brain to the spinal cord
- The meninges
The meninges is the system of membranes which envelops the central nervous system. The meninges consist of three layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater...
of the brain and medulla spinalis
- The cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid , Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain. In essence, the brain "floats" in it....
- The cranial nerves
- The olfactory nerve
The olfactory nerve, or cranial nerve I, is the first of twelve cranial nerves. The specialized olfactory receptor neurons of the olfactory nerve are located in the olfactory mucosa of the upper parts of the nasal cavity...
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- The optic nerve
The optic nerve, also called cranial nerve II, transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.-Anatomy:The optic nerve is the second of twelve paired cranial nerves but is considered to be part of the central nervous system as it is derived from an outpouching of the diencephalon during...
- The oculomotor nerve
The oculomotor nerve is the third of twelve paired cranial nerves. It controls most of the eye's movement, constriction of the pupil, and maintains an open eyelid. -Nuclei:...
- The trochlear nerve
The trochlear nerve is a motor nerve that innervates a single muscle: the superior oblique muscle of the eye...
- The trigeminal nerve
The trigeminal nerve is responsible for sensation in the face. Sensory information from the face and body is processed by parallel pathways in the central nervous system....
- The abducent nerve
The abducens nerve or abducent nerve is a “somatic efferent” nerve that controls the movement of a single muscle, the lateral rectus muscle of the eye...
- The facial nerve
The facial nerve is the seventh of twelve paired cranial nerves. It emerges from the brainstem between the pons and the medulla, and controls the muscles of facial expression, and taste to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue...
- The vestibulocochlear nerve
The vestibulocochlear nerve is the eighth of twelve cranial nerves, and is responsible for transmitting sound and equilibrium information from the inner ear to the brain....
- The glossopharyngeal nerve
The glossopharyngeal nerve is the ninth of twelve pairs of cranial nerves . It exits the brainstem out from the sides of the upper medulla, just rostral to the vagus nerve.-Functions:...
- The vagus nerve
The vagus nerve , also called pneumogastric nerve or cranial nerve X, is the tenth of twelve paired cranial nerves, and is the only nerve that starts in the brainstem...
- The accessory nerve
In anatomy, the accessory nerve is a nerve that controls specific muscles of the neck. As a part of it was formerly believed to originate in the brain, it is considered a cranial nerve. Based on its location relative to other such nerves, it is designated the eleventh of twelve cranial nerves, and...
- The hypoglossal nerve
The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve , leading to the tongue. The nerve arises from the hypoglossal nucleus and emerges from the medulla oblongata in the preolivary sulcus separating the olive and the pyramid. It then passes through the hypoglossal canal...
- The spinal nerve
The term spinal nerve generally refers to the mixed spinal nerve, which is formed from the dorsal and ventral roots that come out of the spinal cord. The spinal nerve is the bit that passes out of the vertebrae through the intervertebral foramen. All spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous...
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- The posterior divisions
- The anterior divisions
- The thoracic nerves
- The lumbosacral plexus
The anterior divisions of the lumbar nerve, sacral nerve, and coccygeal nerves form the lumbosacral plexus, the first lumbar nerve being frequently joined by a branch from the twelfth thoracic. For descriptive purposes this plexus is usually divided into three parts:* lumbar plexus* sacral plexus*...
- The sacral and coccygeal nerves
- The sympathetic nerves
- The cephalic portion of the sympathetic system
- The cervical portion of the sympathetic system
- The thoracic portion of the sympathetic system
- The abdominal portion of the sympathetic system
- The pelvic portion of the sympathetic system
- The great plexuses of the sympathetic system
The Organs of the Senses and the Common Integument
- The peripheral organs of the special senses
- The organs of taste
Taste is a form of direct chemoreception and is one of the traditional five senses. It refers to the ability to detect the flavor of substances such as food, certain minerals, and poisons. In humans and many other vertebrate animals the sense of taste partners with the less direct sense of smell,...
- The organ of smell
Olfaction refers to the sense of smell. This sense is mediated by specialized sensory cells of the nasal cavity of vertebrates, and, by analogy, sensory cells of the antennae of invertebrates...
- The organ of sight
Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight or vision...
- The tunics of the eye
Eyes are organs that detect light, and send electrical impulses along the optic nerve to the visual and other areas of the brain. Complex optical systems with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system...
- The refracting media
- The accessory organs of the eye
- The organ of hearing
Hearing is one of the traditional five senses. It is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations via an organ such as the ear...
- The external ear
The ear is the organ that detects sound. The vertebrate ear shows a common biology from fish to humans, with variations in structure according to order and species. It not only acts as a receiver for sound, but plays a major role in the sense of balance and body position...
- The middle ear
The middle ear is the portion of the ear internal to the eardrum, and external to the oval window of the cochlea. The mammalian middle ear contains three ossicles, which couple vibration of the eardrum into waves in the fluid and membranes of the inner ear. The hollow space of the middle ear has...
or tympanic cavityThe tympanic cavity is a small cavity surrounding the bones of the middle ear.It is formed from the tubotympanic sulcus, an expansion of the first pharyngeal pouch....
- The auditory ossicles
- The internal ear
The labyrinth is a system of fluid passages in the inner ear, including both the cochlea, which is part of the auditory system, and the vestibular system, which provides the sense of balance...
or labyrinthThe labyrinth is a system of fluid passages in the inner ear, including both the cochlea, which is part of the auditory system, and the vestibular system, which provides the sense of balance...
- Peripheral terminations of nerves of general sensations
- The common integument
- The respiratory apparatus
- The larynx
The larynx , colloquially known as the voicebox, is an organ in the neck of mammals involved in protection of the trachea and sound production...
- The trachea
The trachea, or windpipe, is a tube that connects to the pharynx or larynx, allowing the passage of air to the lungs. It is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium cells with mucosal goblet cells which produce mucus...
and bronchi
- The pleurae
- The mediastinum
The mediastinum is a non-delineated group of structures in the thorax, surrounded by loose connective tissue. It is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity...
- The lung
The lung or pulmonary system is the essential respiration organ in air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located in the chest on either side of the heart...
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- The digestive apparatus
- The mouth
The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up the solid food particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva...
- The fauces
- The pharynx
The pharynx is the part of the neck and throat situated immediately posterior to the mouth and nasal cavity, and cranial, or superior, to the esophagus, larynx, and trachea.-Functions:...
- The esophagus
The esophagus or oesophagus , sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in vertebrates which consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. The word esophagus is derived from the Latin œsophagus, which derives from the Greek word oisophagos , lit...
- The abdomen
In vertebrates such as mammals the abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis. The region enclosed by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity...
- The stomach
In most mammals, the stomach is a hollow, muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract , between the esophagus and the small intestine. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication . The word stomach is derived from the Latin stomachus, which derives from the Greek word...
- The small intestine
In vertebrates, the small intestine is the part of the gastrointestinal tract following the stomach and followed by the large intestine, and is where the vast majority of digestion and absorption of food takes place. In invertebrates such as worms, the terms "gastrointestinal tract" and "large...
- The large intestine
The large intestine is the second to last part of the digestive system—the final stage of the alimentary canal is the anus —in vertebrate animals. Its function is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter, and then to pass useless waste material from the body...
- The liver
The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion...
- The pancreas
The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that pass to...
- The urogenital apparatus
- Development of the urinary and generative organs
- The urinary organs
- The kidney
The kidneys are paired organs, which have the production of urine as their primary function. Kidneys are seen in many types of animals, including vertebrates and some invertebrates. They are part of the urinary system, but have several secondary functions concerned with homeostatic functions. ...
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- The ureter
In human anatomy, the ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In the adult, the ureters are usually long....
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- The urinary bladder
In anatomy, the urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. A hollow muscular, and distensible organ, the bladder sits on the pelvic floor...
- The male urethra
In anatomy, the urethra is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. The urethra has an excretory function in both sexes to pass urine to the outside, and also a reproductive function in the male, as a passage for semen.The external urethral sphincter is a striated...
- The female urethra
- The male genital organs
- The testes and their coverings
- The ductus deferens
- The vesiculae seminales
- The ejaculatory duct
The Ejaculatory ducts are paired structures in male anatomy, about 2 cm in length.Each ejaculatory duct is formed by the union of the vas deferens with the duct of the seminal vesicle. They pass through the prostate, and empty into the urethra at the Colliculus seminalis...
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- The penis
The penis is an external sexual organ of certain biologically male organisms, in both vertebrates and invertebrates....
- The prostate
The prostate is a compound tubuloalveolar exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system. Females do not have prostate glands...
- The bulbourethral gland
A bulbourethral gland, also called a Cowper's gland for anatomist William Cowper, is one of two small exocrine glands present in the reproductive system of human males...
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- The female genital organs
- The ovaries
The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homologous to testes in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands.-Human anatomy:...
- The uterine tube
- The uterus
The uterus is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals, including humans. It is within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation. The term uterus is used consistently within the medical and related professions; the Germanic term, womb is more common in...
- The vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female placental mammals and marsupials, or to the cloaca in female birds, monotremes, and some reptiles. Female insects and other invertebrates also have a vagina, which is the terminal part of the...
- The clitoris
The clitoris is a sexual organ that is present only in female mammals. In humans, the visible button-like portion is located near the anterior junction of the labia minora, above the opening of the urethra and vagina. Unlike the penis, which is homologous to the clitoris, the clitoris does not...
- Bartholin's gland
The Bartholin's glands are two glands located slightly below and to the left and right of the opening of the vagina in women. They secrete mucus to lubricate the vagina and are homologous to bulbourethral glands in males...
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- The external organs
- The mammae
- The ductless gland
Ductless glands are glands that secrete their product directly onto a surface rather than through a duct. Examples are the goblet cells in the epithelial surface of the digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive systems...
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- The thyroid gland
- The parathyroid gland
The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck that produce parathyroid hormone. Humans have four parathyroid glands, which are usually located behind the thyroid gland, and, in rare cases, within the thyroid gland or in the chest...
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- The thymus
In human anatomy, the thymus is an organ located in the upper anterior portion of the chest cavity just behind the sternum. The main function of the thymus is to provide an area for T lymphocyte maturation, and is vital in protecting against autoimmunity....
- The hypophysis cerebri
- The pineal body
- The chromaphil and cortical systems
- The spleen
The spleen is an organ found in virtually all vertebrate animals with important roles in regard to red blood cells and the immune system In humans, it is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It removes old red blood cells, holds a reserve in case of hemorrhagic shock, especially in...
Surface Anatomy and Surface Markings
- Surface anatomy of the head and neck
- Surface markings of special regions of the head and neck
- Surface anatomy of the back
- The lozenges of Aphrodite
- Surface markings of the back
- Surface anatomy of the thorax
- Surface markings of the thorax
- Surface anatomy of the abdomen
- Surface markings of the abdomen
- Surface anatomy of the perineum
- Surface markings of the perineum
- Surface anatomy of the upper extremity
- Surface markings of the upper extremity
- Surface anatomy of the lower extremity
- Surface markings of the lower extremity
See also