Lindy Hop

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Lindy Hop

Lindy Hop is an African American dance, based on the popular Charleston

Charleston (dance)

The Charleston is a dance named for the city of Charleston, South Carolina. The rhythm was popularized in mainstream dance music in the United States by a 1923 tune called Charleston by composer/pianist James P....
and named for Lindberg's Atlantic crossing, that evolved in New York City

New York City

The City of New York is the List of United States cities by population in the United States, while the New York metropolitan area ranks among the List of urban areas by population....
in 1927. It is a fusion of many dances that preceded it or were popular during its development but is mainly based on jazz

Jazz dance

Jazz dance is an umbrella term that can refer to several related dance styles. All of them are connected via common roots, namely Tap dance, ballet, jazz music, and African-American rhythms and dance....
, tap

Tap dance

Tap dance was developed in the United States during the nineteenth century, and is popular in many parts of the world. The name comes from the tapping sound made when metal plates on the dancer's shoes touches a hard performance surface....
, breakaway

Breakaway (dance)

From 1919 to 1927, Breakaway was a popular swing dance developed from the Texas Tommy and Charleston in Harlem's African American communities....
and Charleston

Charleston (dance)

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Encyclopedia

Lindy Hop is an African American dance, based on the popular Charleston

Charleston (dance)

New York City

Jazz dance

Tap dance

Breakaway (dance)

From 1919 to 1927, Breakaway was a popular swing dance developed from the Texas Tommy and Charleston in Harlem's African American communities....
and Charleston

Charleston (dance)

Jazz

Jazz is a primarily American musical art form which originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions....
music and is a member of the swing dance

Swing (dance)

The term "swing dance" commonly refers to a group of dances that developed concurrently with the swing music style of jazz music in the 1920s, '30s and '40s....
family. It is frequently described as a jazz

Jazz dance

Street dance

Street dance, also called vernacular dance is an umbrella term, used to describe dance styles that evolved outside of dance studios in everyday spaces such as streets, school yards and nightclubs....
.

In its development, Lindy Hop combined elements of both solo and partner dancing by using the movements and improvisation of black dances along with the formal eight-count structure of European partner dance

Partner dance

Partner dances are the dances whose basic choreography involves coordinated dancing of two partners, as opposed to solo dance dancing alone or individually in a non-coordinated manner, and as opposed to Group dance dancing simultaneously in a coordinated manner....
s. This is most clearly illustrated in Lindy's basic step, the swingout

Swingout

The swingout is the defining dance move of Lindy Hop. The swingout evolved from the breakaway , which in turn evolved from the Texas Tommy . The first documented mention of the swingout pattern that resembles breakaway was in 1911, to describe a "Texas Tommy Swing" show done at the The Fairmont San Francisco in San Francisco, CA, USA ....
. In this step's open position

Open position

In couples dancing, open position refers to positions in which partners are connected primarily at the hands as opposed to closer body contact , as in closed position....
, each dancer is generally connected hand-to-hand; in its closed position

Closed position

In Partner dance, closed position is a category of positions in which partners hold each other while facing at least approximately toward each other....
, men and women are connected as though in an embrace.

Revived in the 1980s by American, Swedish, and British dancers, Lindy Hop dancers and organizations can now be found in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania.

History

Swing era (1920s-1940s)

Born in African American

African American

African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the Black people populations of Africa....
communities in Harlem

Harlem

Harlem is a Neighbourhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan, long known as a major African-American residential, cultural, and business center....
, New York

New York

The State of New York is a U.S. state in the Mid-Atlantic States and Northeastern United States regions of the United States and is the nation's List of U.S....
in the United States

United States

The United States of America is a Federal government constitutional republic comprising U.S. state and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its Contiguous United States and Washington, D.C., the Capital districts and territories, lie between the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Oceans, Borders of the U...
from about 1927 into the early 1930s from four possible sources: the breakaway

Breakaway (dance)

From 1919 to 1927, Breakaway was a popular swing dance developed from the Texas Tommy and Charleston in Harlem's African American communities....
, the Charleston

Charleston (dance)

Texas Tommy (dance)

The Texas Tommy was a hit around 1910 at a Negro cabaret, Purcell's, on the Barbary Coast. Ethel Williams, who helped popularize the dance in New York in 1913 described it as a "kick and a hop three times on each foot followed by a slide....
, and the hop.

According to Ethel Williams, who helped popularize the Texas Tommy

Texas Tommy

Texas Tommy may refer to:*A Texas Tommy *A Hot dog...
in New York in 1913, the Texas Tommy "was like the Lindy", and the basic steps were followed by a breakaway identical to that found in the Lindy. Savoy dancer "Shorty" George Snowden stated that, "We used to call the basic step the Hop long before Lindbergh

Charles Lindbergh

Charles Augustus Lindbergh was an United States aviator, author, inventor and explorer.On May 20?21, 1927, Lindbergh emerged instantaneously from virtual obscurity to world fame as the result of his Orteig Prize-winning solo non-stop flight from Roosevelt Field, Long Island in New York City to Paris - Le Bourget Airport in Paris in the s...
did his hop across the Atlantic. It had been around a long time and some people began to call it the Lindbergh Hop after 1927, although it didn't last. Then, during the marathon at Manhattan Casino, I got tired of the same old steps and cut loose with a breakaway..." Fox Movietone News covered the marathon and took a close-up of Shorty's feet. When asked "What are you doing with your feet," Shorty replied, "The Lindy". The date was June 17, 1928.

The first generation of Lindy Hop is popularly associated with dancers such as "Shorty" George Snowden, his partner Big Bea, and Leroy Stretch Jones and Little Bea. "Shorty" George and Big Bea regularly won contests at the Savoy Ballroom

Savoy Ballroom

The Savoy Ballroom located in Harlem, New York City, was a medium sized ballroom for music and public dancing that was in operation from 1926 to 1958....
. Their dancing accentuated the difference in size with Big Bea towering over Shorty. These dancers specialized in so-called floor steps.

As white people began going to Harlem to watch black dancers, according to Langston Hughes

Langston Hughes

James Mercer Langston Hughes, was an American poet, novelist, playwright, short story writer, and columnist. Hughes is best-known for his work during the Harlem Renaissance....
: "The lindy-hoppers at the Savoy even began to practice acrobatic routines, and to do absurd things for the entertainment of the whites, that probably never would have entered their heads to attempt for their own effortless amusement. Some of the lindy-hoppers had cards printed with their names on them and became dance professors teaching the tourists. Then Harlem nights became show nights for the Nordics."

Charles Buchanan, manager of the Savoy, paid dancers such as Shortly Snowden to "perform" for his clientele. According to Snowden, "When he finally offered to pay us, we went up and had a ball. All we wanted to do was dance anyway."

"Air steps" such as the Hip to Hip, Side Flip, and Over the Back (the names describe the motion of the woman in the air) began to appear in 1936, all of which were disapproved of by the old guard such as Leon James, Leroy Jones, and Shorty Snowden.

Younger dancers fresh out of high school: Al Minns, Joe Daniels, Russell WIlliams, and Pepsi Bethel worked out the Back Flip, Over the head, and 'the Snatch.

Frankie Manning
Frankie Manning

Frankie Manning is an American dancer, instructor and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founding fathers of Lindy Hop....
was part of a new generation of Lindy Hoppers, and is the most celebrated Lindy Hopper in history. Al Minns
Al Minns

Al Minns , born Albert Mills, was a prominent American Lindy Hop and jazz dancer. Most famous for his film and stage performances in the 1930s and 1940s with the Harlem-based Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, Minns worked throughout his life to promote the dances that he and his cohorts helped to pioneer at New York City Savoy Ballroom....
and Pepsi Bethel, Leon James, and Norma Miller
Norma Miller

Norma Miller is an United States Swing dancer known to many people as The Queen of Swing. She was interviewed along with dance partner Frankie Manning in Ken Burns documentary "Jazz "....
also feature prominently in contemporary histories of Lindy Hop. Some sources credit Frankie Manning
Frankie Manning

Frankie Manning is an American dancer, instructor and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founding fathers of Lindy Hop....
, working with his partner Freida Washington, invented the ground-breaking 'Air Step' or 'aerial
Aerial (dance move)

An aerial is a dance move in Lindy Hop where one's feet leave the floor. The term has come to mean a wide range of special and unusual dance moves, including dips, slides, and tricks....
' in 1935. One source credits Al Minns and Pepsi Bethel as among those who refined the air step. An Air Step is a dance move in which at least one of the partners' two feet leave the ground in a dramatic, acrobatic style. Most importantly, it is done in time with the music. Air steps are now widely associated with the characterization of lindy hop, despite being generally reserved competition or performance dancing, and are not generally executed on any social dance floor.

Lindy Hop entered mainstream American culture in the 1930s, gaining popularity through multiple sources. Dance troupes, including the Whitey's Lindy Hoppers
Whitey's Lindy Hoppers

'Whitey's Lindy Hoppers' was a professional performing group of Savoy Ballroom swing dancers, started in 1935 by Herbert "Whitey" White. The group took on many different forms, with up to 12 different groups performing under this name or one of a number of different names used for the group over the years, including Whitey's Hopping Maniacs'...
(also known as the Harlem Congaroos), Hot Chocolates and Big Apple Dancers exhibited the Lindy Hop. Hollywood films, such as Hellzapoppin'
Hellzapoppin' (film)

Hellzapoppin' is a 1941 in film Universal Pictures adapatation of the musical of the Hellzapoppin' directed by H.C. Potter. In the film, Ole and Chic are working for Miracle Pictures ....
and A Day at the Races
A Day at the Races (film)

A Day at the Races is the seventh Film starring the three Marx Brothers, with Margaret Dumont, Allan Jones and Maureen O'Sullivan. Like their previous MGM feature A Night at the Opera , this film was a major hit....
began featuring the Lindy Hop in dance sequences. Dance studios such as those of Arthur Murray
Arthur Murray

Arthur Murray was a dance instructor and businessman, whose name is most often associated with the dance studio chain that bears his name.Pupils of Murray have included Eleanor Roosevelt, the Duke of Windsor, John D....
and Irene and Vernon Castle began teaching Lindy Hop. Lindy Hop's movement to the west coast of the United States is popularly associated with Dean Collins
Dean Collins

Dean Collins was an United States dancer, instructor, choreographer, and innovator of Swing . He is often credited with bringing swing dance, or Lindy Hop, from New York to Southern California....
, who brought Lindy Hop to Los Angeles
Los Ángeles

Los ?ngeles is the Capital of the Biob?o Province, in the municipality of the same name, in Regions of Chile VIII , in the center-south of Chile....
after learning it at the Savoy Ballroom
Savoy Ballroom

The Savoy Ballroom located in Harlem, New York City, was a medium sized ballroom for music and public dancing that was in operation from 1926 to 1958....
in New York.

Lindy Hop moved off-shore in the 1930s and 40s, again in films and news reels, but also with American troops stationed overseas, particularly in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom , the UK or Britain,is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe....
,Canada
Canada

Canada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean....
, Australia
Australia

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the southern hemisphere comprising the Australia of the world's smallest continent, the major island of Tasmania, and numerous list of islands of Australia in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Oceans....
, New Zealand
New Zealand

New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses , and numerous Islands of New Zealand, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands....
, and other allied nations. Although Lindy Hop and jazz were banned in countries such as Germany
Germany

Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands....
, both were popular in other European countries during this period.

In 1944, due to continued involvement in World War II
World War II

World War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a Participants in World War II, including all of the great powers, organised into two opposing military alliances: the Allies of World War II and the Axis powers....
, the United States levied a 30 percent federal excise tax
Excise

Excise tax, sometimes called an excise Duty , is a type of tax. In the United States, the term "excise" means: any tax other than a property tax or Poll tax , or a tax that is simply called an excise in the language of the statute imposing that tax ....
against "dancing" nightclub
Nightclub

A nightclub is a Alcoholic beverage, Dance and entertainment Music venue which does its primary business after dark. People who frequent nightclubs are known as clubbers....
s. Although the tax was later reduced to 20 percent, "No Dancing Allowed" signs went up all over the country.

post Swing Era (1950s-1960s)
Arthur Murray's 1954 edition of "How to become a Good Dancer" included 4 pages of instruction for Swing: the Basic Lindy Step, the Double Lindy Hop, the Triple Lindy Hop, the Sugar Foot Walk, and the Tuck-In Turn. A chapter is devoted to Lindy Hop in the 1953 and 1958 editions of "Dancing Made Easy".

The 1962 "Ballroom Dancebook for Teachers" included an entire chapter on "Lindy".

According to the book "Social Dance", copyrighted in 1969, by 1960 The Lindy Hop was known as Swing.

Revival (1980s and 1990s)
Sandra Cameron and Larry Schulz of the Cameron Dance Center Inc in New York were instrumental in bringing Al Minns and Frank Manning back into teaching Lindy Hop at their dance center. Minns joined the dance center and began a swing program there in 1981. Frank Manning joined the Center in 1985.

Al Minns' early students formed the basis for the New York Swing Dance Society, established in 1985.

In the 1980s, American and European dancers from California, New York, London, and Sweden (such as Sylvia Sykes
Sylvia Sykes

Sylvia Sykes is a Swing dancer, dance instructor, judge and choreographer. In particular she is considered by most to be the leading authority on the dance Balboa ....
, Erin Stevens, Steven Mitchell, Terry Monaghan and Warren Heyes who formed London's Jiving Lindy Hoppers performance troupe, and Stockholm's Rhythm Hot Shots / Harlem Hot Shots) went about 'reviving' Lindy Hop using archival films such as Hellzapoppin'

Hellzapoppin' (film)

Hellzapoppin' is a 1941 in film Universal Pictures adapatation of the musical of the Hellzapoppin' directed by H.C. Potter. In the film, Ole and Chic are working for Miracle Pictures ....
and A Day at the Races

A Day at the Races (film)

A Day at the Races is the seventh Film starring the three Marx Brothers, with Margaret Dumont, Allan Jones and Maureen O'Sullivan. Like their previous MGM feature A Night at the Opera , this film was a major hit....
and by contacting dancers such as Frankie Manning
Frankie Manning

Frankie Manning is an American dancer, instructor and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founding fathers of Lindy Hop....
, Al Minns
Al Minns

Al Minns , born Albert Mills, was a prominent American Lindy Hop and jazz dancer. Most famous for his film and stage performances in the 1930s and 1940s with the Harlem-based Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, Minns worked throughout his life to promote the dances that he and his cohorts helped to pioneer at New York City Savoy Ballroom....
, Norma Miller
Norma Miller

Norma Miller is an United States Swing dancer known to many people as The Queen of Swing. She was interviewed along with dance partner Frankie Manning in Ken Burns documentary "Jazz "....
, Jewel McGowan
Jewel McGowan

Jewel McGowan was a dancer of Lindy Hop, a form of Swing , in the 1940s and 1950s. She is known among dance aficionados as the frequent partner of dancer Dean Collins....
and Dean Collins
Dean Collins

Dean Collins was an United States dancer, instructor, choreographer, and innovator of Swing . He is often credited with bringing swing dance, or Lindy Hop, from New York to Southern California....
. In the mid-to-late 1990s the popularity of neo swing music of the swing revival
Swing Revival

The Swing Revival was a late 1990s in music and early 2000s period of renewed popular interest in Swing and jump blues music and dance from the 1930s and 1940s as exemplified by Louis Prima, often mixed with a more contemporary rock music, rockabilly or ska sound, known also as neo-swing or retro swing....
stimulated mainstream interest in the dance. The dance was propelled to wide visibility after it was featured in movies such as Swing Kids

Swing Kids (film)

Swing Kids is a film produced in 1992 in film and directed by Thomas Carter . The runtime is approximately 112 minutes. The film is considered as being part of the Lindy Hop revival of the 1980s and 1990s, and responsible for bringing more people to this dance form....
in 1993, and Swingers

Swingers (1996 film)

Swingers is a film released in 1996 in film about the lives of single, unemployed actors living on the 'eastside' of Hollywood, Los Angeles, California during the 1990s swing revival....
in 1996, and in television commercials for GAP
Gap (clothing retailer)

The Gap, Inc. is an United States clothing and accessories retailer based in San Francisco, California, and founded in 1969 by Donald Fisher and Doris F....
in 1998. The popularity led to the founding of local Lindy Hop dance communities in many cities.

Current status

There are thriving communities throughout the world. The small village of Herräng
Herräng

Herr?ng is the northernmost locality of Norrt?lje Municipality and Stockholm County, Sweden. It is located along the coast at the bay Sing?fj?rden, 40 kilometres north of the municipal seat Norrt?lje,...
in Sweden (north of Stockholm
Stockholm

is the capital and largest city of Sweden. It is the site of the national Swedish Government of Sweden, the Parliament of Sweden, and the official residence of the Swedish Monarchy of Sweden....
) has unofficially become the international mecca of Lindy Hop thanks to the annual Herräng Dance Camp
Herräng Dance Camp

Herr?ng Dance Camp is the largest annual dance camp that focuses on African American jazz dances such as Lindy Hop, Boogie-woogie , Tap dance, jazz dance, and Balboa ....
run by the Harlem Hot Shots with an attendance from around 40 countries. Lindy Hop can be found in almost every large westernized city in the world. Some of these include London, Beijing, Tokyo, Seol, Barcelona, New York, and Beunos Aires.

Lindy Hop tends to be concentrated in small local scenes in different cities in each of these countries, although regional, national, and international dance events bring dancers from many of these scenes together. Local swing dance communities in each city and country feature different local cultures. The concept of a Lindy exchange
Lindy exchange

A lindy exchange is a gathering of lindy hop dancers in one city for several days to experience the dance venues and styles of that local community, and to dance with visitors and locals alike....
, a gathering of lindy hop
Lindy Hop

Lindy Hop is an African American dance, based on the popular Charleston and named for Lindberg's Atlantic crossing, that evolved in New York City in 1927....
dancers in one city for several days to dance with visitors and locals, enables different communities to share their ideas with others.

Many Internet forums have emerged in these dance scenes, providing information about Lindy Hop and dance events in the geographic area. Yehoodi
Yehoodi

Yehoodi was founded in September 1998 by Manu Smith and Frank Dellario. Its central feature is a popular Internet forum currently staffed by six volunteer administrators....
has become the largest of these, although many smaller local forums (such as Swingmonkey.com and Windyhop.org) also exist.

Lindy Hop today is danced as a social dance
Social dance

File:Il Ballo2.jpgSocial dance is a major category or classification of danceforms or dance styles, where sociability and socializing are the primary focuses of the dancing....
, as a competitive dance
Competitive dance

Competitive dance is a popular, widespread activity in which competitors perform dances in any of several permitted dance styles?such as acro dance, ballet, jazz dance, hip-hop dance, lyrical dance, and tap dance?before a common group of judges....
, as a performance dance, and in classes, workshops, and camps. In each, partners may dance alone or together, with improvisation
Improvisation

Improvisation is the practice of acting, singing, talking and reacting, of making and creating, in the moment and in response to the stimulus of one's immediate environment and inner feelings....
a central part of social dancing and many performance and competition pieces.

Mass media

Lindy Hop has been featured in the mass media since its inception.

In the 1953 episode of I Love Lucy

I Love Lucy

I Love Lucy is an United States situation comedy, starring Lucille Ball, Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance and William Frawley. The black-and-white series originally ran from October 15 1951 to April 1 1960 on CBS....
called "Lucy Has Her Eyes Examined", Lucy dances Lindy Hop with a "cool cat" dance partner in a showcase at Ricky's nightclub but can't do the dance properly due to the dilating eyedrops the eye doctor gave her.

Lindy Hop is featured in several music video
Music video

A music video is a short film or video that accompanies a complete piece of music, most commonly a pop music or rock music song with lyrics. Modern music videos are primarily made and used as a marketing device intended to promote the sale of music recordings....
s, including Marilyn Manson
Marilyn Manson

Marilyn Manson may refer to:* Marilyn Manson , an American rock musician* Marilyn Manson , the American rock band led by the singer of the same name...
's Mobscene

MOBSCENE

"Mobscene" trademarked as "mOBSCENE" is the inaugural single taken from the 2003 album The Golden Age of Grotesque by Marilyn Manson ....
, the 2002 music video to Elvis Presley
Elvis Presley

Elvis Aaron Presley was an United Statesn singer, actor, and musician. A cultural icon, he is commonly known simply as "Elvis", and is also sometimes referred to as "List of honorific titles in popular music" or "The King"....
vs. JXL remix of A Little Less Conversation

A Little Less Conversation

"A Little Less Conversation" is a song originally recorded by Elvis Presley for the movie Live a Little, Love a Little in 1968. It was released by RCA Victor as a single, but the release was only a moderate success, indicative of the diminishing returns of Presley's movie recordings at that time....
, the 2007 music video to Christina Aguilera
Christina Aguilera

Christina Mar?a Aguilera is an American pop music/contemporary R&B singer and songwriter. Aguilera first appeared on national television in 1990 as a contestant on the Star Search program, and went on to star in Disney Channel's television series The New Mickey Mouse Club#1990s revival from 1993?1994....
's song Candyman

Candyman (Christina Aguilera song)

"Candyman" is a swing music song written by Christina Aguilera and Linda Perry for Aguilera's third studio album, Back to Basics . It was released as the album's third and final American single in early 2007 ....
and the 2008 video release from Millencolin
Millencolin

Millencolin is a punk rock band that was formed in October of 1992 by Erik Ohlsson, Mathias F?rm and Nikola Sarcevic in ?rebro, Sweden. In early 1993, drummer Fredrik Larzon joined the band....
; Detox.

The Lindy Hop was the dance Homer Simpson performed as a panda in The Simpsons episode "Homer vs. Dignity
Homer vs. Dignity

"Homer vs. Dignity" is the fifth episode of the List of The Simpsons episodes#Season 12 of The Simpsons. It aired on November 26, 2000. This episode is often panned by critics, for blatantly recycling old plot points , and has been seen by some Internet fans as the low point of the entire series for its sequence where Homer is sexually a...
" season 12.

The Harlem
Harlem

Harlem is a Neighbourhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan, long known as a major African-American residential, cultural, and business center....
Lindy Hop dance club and zoot suit
Zoot suit

A zoot suit is a Suit with high-waisted, wide-legged, tight-cuffed, Wiktionary:pegged trousers, and a long coat with wide lapels and wide padded shoulders....
culture forms a colourful backdrop in the early part of Spike Lee
Spike Lee

Shelton Jackson "Spike" Lee is an Emmy Award-winning and Academy Award-nominated United States film director, Film producer, screenwriter, and actor, noted for his films dealing with controversial Society and Politics issues....
's film Malcolm X
Malcolm X

Malcolm X , also known as Hajji Malik El-Shabazz , was an African American Muslim minister, public speaker, and human rights activist. To his admirers, he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans....
, starring Denzel Washington
Denzel Washington

Denzel Hayes Washington, Jr. is an United States actor and film director. He has garnered much critical acclaim for his work in film since the 1990s, including for his portrayals of real-life figures, such as Steve Biko, Malcolm X, Rubin "Hurricane" Carter, Melvin B....
. Spike Lee
Spike Lee

Shelton Jackson "Spike" Lee is an Emmy Award-winning and Academy Award-nominated United States film director, Film producer, screenwriter, and actor, noted for his films dealing with controversial Society and Politics issues....
's character is called "Shorty".

Further reading

DeFrantz, Thomas. Dancing Many Drums: Excavations in African American Dance. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001.
Emery, Lynne Fauley. Black Dance in the United States from 1619 to 1970. California: National Press Books, 1972.
Friedland, LeeEllen. "Social Commentary in African-American Movement Performance." Human Action Signs in Cultural Context: The Visible and the Invisible in Movement and Dance. Ed. Brenda Farnell. London: Scarecrow Press, 1995. 136 - 57.
Gottschild, Brenda Dixon. Digging the Africanist Presence in American Performance. Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1996.
Hazzard-Gordon, Katrina. Jookin': The Rise of Social Dance Formations in African-American Culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990.
Jackson, Jonathan David. "Improvisation in African-American Vernacular Dancing." Dance Research Journal 33.2 (2001/2002): 40 - 53.
Malone, Jacqui. Steppin' on the Blues: The Visible Rhythms of African American Dance. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996.* Szwed, John F., and Morton Marks. "The Afro-American Transformation of European Set Dances and Dance Suites." Dance Research Journal 20.1 (1988): 29 - 36.
Thomas, Amy. "Infinity Dance: The Move That Never Ends". California: National Press Books, 2006
Batchelor, Christian, This Thing Called Swing. Christian Batchelor Books, 1997, ISBN 0953063100

External links

- resource for Lindy Hop history, sanctioned by Frankie Manning
Frankie Manning

Frankie Manning is an American dancer, instructor and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founding fathers of Lindy Hop....
resource for Jazz Dance history

Lindy Hop

History

Swing era (1920s-1940s)

post Swing Era (1950s-1960s)

Revival (1980s and 1990s)

Current status

Mass media

Further reading

See also

External links