Ladin is a language consisting of a group of dialects (which some consider part of a unitary Rhaeto-Romance language) spoken in the
Dolomite MountainsThe Dolomites are a mountain range located in north-eastern Italy. It is a part of Southern Limestone Alps and extends from the River Adige in the west to the Piave Valley in the east. The northern and southern borders are defined by the Puster Valley and the Sugana Valley...
in
Northern ItalyNorthern Italy is a wide cultural, historical and geographical definition, without any administrative usage, used to indicate the northern part of the Italian state, also referred as Settentrione or Alta Italia...
in the border regions of the provinces Trentino,
South TyrolSouth Tyrol , also known by its Italian name Alto Adige, is an autonomous province in northern Italy. It is one of the two autonomous provinces that make up the autonomous region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol. The province has an area of and a total population of more than 500,000 inhabitants...
and
BellunoTheThe Province of Belluno is a province in the Veneto region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Belluno.It has an area of 3,678 km², and a total population of 214,026 .-Geography:...
. It is closely related to the Swiss Romansh and
FriulianFriulan , is a Romance language belonging to the Rhaeto-Romance family, spoken in the Friuli region of northeastern Italy. Friulan has around 800,000 speakers, the vast majority of whom also speak Italian...
.
A
StandardA standard language is a language variety used by a group of people in their public discourse. Alternatively, varieties become standard by undergoing a process of standardization, during which it is organized for description in grammars and dictionaries and encoded in such reference works...
written variety of Ladin (
Ladin Dolomitan) has been developed by the Office for Ladin Language Planning as a common communication tool across the whole Ladin-speaking region.
Ladin should not be confused with Ladino (also called Judaeo-Spanish), which is a Romance dialect of
SpanishSpanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
, with
HebrewHebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
,
TurkishTurkish is a language spoken as a native language by over 83 million people worldwide, making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Northern Cyprus with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo,...
and
GreekGreek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
influences.
Geographic distribution
In the 2001 census, 18,124 inhabitants of South Tyrol declared Ladin as their native language. It is spoken in the following municipalities of
South TyrolSouth Tyrol , also known by its Italian name Alto Adige, is an autonomous province in northern Italy. It is one of the two autonomous provinces that make up the autonomous region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol. The province has an area of and a total population of more than 500,000 inhabitants...
:
- Urtijëi
Urtijëi is a town of 4,637 inhabitants in South Tyrol, in the Italian region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol. It occupies the Val Gardena within the Dolomites, a mountain chain that is part of the Alps...
- Santa Cristina Gherdëina
- Sëlva
Sëlva is a comune in the Val Gardena in South Tyrol, northern Italy, located about 70 km northeast of the city of Trento and about 30 km east of the city of Bolzano.-Geography:...
- Badia
- Corvara
- La Val
La Val is a comune in the province of South Tyrol in the Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 90 km northeast of the city of Trento and about 45 km northeast of the city of Bolzano....
- San Martin de Tor
San Martin de Tor is a comune in South Tyrol in the Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 90 km northeast of the city of Trento and about 45 km northeast of the city of Bolzano .-Geography:...
- Mareo
Mareo is a comune in South Tyrol in the Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 90 km northeast of Trento and about 50 km northeast of Bolzano .-Geography:...
In the 2001 census, 16,462 inhabitants of Trentino declared Ladin as their native language. It is spoken in the following municipalities of Trentino in the
Fascia ValleyThe Fascia Valley is a valley in the Dolomites in Trentino, northern Italy. As an administrative valley community of Trentino it is called Region Comun General de Fascia.The valley is the home of the Ladin community in Trentino, which make up the majority of the population...
:
- Canazei
Canazei is a comune in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located in the upper part of the Val di Fassa, about 70 km northeast of Trento...
(Ladin Cianacei)
- Campitello di Fassa
Campitello di Fassa is a comune in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 70 km northeast of Trento...
(Ladin Ciampedèl)
- Mazzin
Mazzin is a comune in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 60 km northeast of Trento...
(Ladin Mazin)
- Pozza di Fassa
Pozza di Fassa is a comune in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 60 km northeast of Trento...
(Ladin Poza)
- Vigo di Fassa
Vigo di Fassa is a comune in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 60 km northeast of Trento...
(Ladin Vich)
- Soraga
Soraga is a comune in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 60 km northeast of Trento...
(Ladin Soraga -or- Sorega)
- Moena
Moena is a comune in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 60 km northeast of Trento...
(Ladin Moena)
The
Nones languageNones is a language named after and spoken in the Non Valley in Trentino, northern Italy. It is estimated that around 30,000 persons speak it.Some linguists argue that it is a dialect of the Ladin language, since it shares many similarities...
hails from the Non Valley and is considered by some linguists a variant of Ladin, but certainly a part of
Gallo-Romance languagesThe Gallo-Romance branch of Romance languages include French and the other langue d'oïl dialects, Occitan , Catalan, Franco-Provençal, Gallo-Italic, and other languages - Other possible classifications :...
. Estimates range up to 30,000 speakers. The Solandro language is also under debate whereas it is a Ladin dialect or not. Native speakers of it are mainly found in the Sole Valley and are estimated to be up to 15,000. There is however no official census to date that has Nones and Solandro as a declared separate language. The total number of Ladin speakers in the census of 2001 exceeds the number present of around 7,500 in the Fascia Valley. A number of Nones and Solandro speakers chose to declare themselves as Ladin speakers, while others chose not to exercise that option due to the disagreement whether or not their languages are in fact Ladin or something separate.
There are around 7,000 speakers in the
province of BellunoTheThe Province of Belluno is a province in the Veneto region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Belluno.It has an area of 3,678 km², and a total population of 214,026 .-Geography:...
in:
- Cortina d'Ampezzo
Cortina d'Ampezzo is a town and comune in the southern Alps located in Veneto, a region in Northern Italy. Located in the heart of the Dolomites in an alpine valley, it is a popular winter sport resort known for its ski-ranges, scenery, accommodations, shops and après-ski scene...
(Ladin: Anpëz, German: Hayden)
- Colle Santa Lucia
Colle Santa Lucia is a comune in the Province of Belluno in the Italian region Veneto, located about 120 km north of Venice and about 40 km northwest of Belluno...
(Ladin: Col, German: Verseil)
- Livinallongo del Col di Lana
Livinallongo del Col di Lana is a comune in the Province of Belluno in the Italian region Veneto, located about 120 km north of Venice and about 45 km northwest of Belluno....
valley (Ladin: Fodóm, German: Buchenstein)
History
The name derives from
LatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
, because Ladin is originally a
vulgar LatinVulgar Latin is any of the nonstandard forms of Latin from which the Romance languages developed. Because of its nonstandard nature, it had no official orthography. All written works used Classical Latin, with very few exceptions...
language left over from the
RomanizedAncient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
Alps. Ladin is often attributed to be a relic of vulgar Latin dialects associated with
Rhaeto-Romance languagesRhaeto-Romance languages are a Romance language sub-family which includes multiple languages spoken in north and north-eastern Italy, and Switzerland...
. Whether a
protoProto- is a prefix meaning "first".Proto may also refer to:- Organizations :* Proto , a tool company , now a division of Stanley Black & Decker...
-Romance language ever existed is controversially discussed amongst linguists and historians, a debate known as
Questione Ladina. Starting in the 6th century, the
BavariiThe Bavarii were a Germanic tribe whose name emerged late in Teutonic tribal times. The full name originally was the Germanic *baio-warioz. This name has been handed down as Baiwaren, Baioaren, Bioras, latinised Bavarii, Baioarii. or Bavarii, Bavarians, Bajuwaren, Bajuvarii, Bajuwaren and Baiern....
started moving in from north, while from the south the Italian language started pushing in, which further shrank the original extent of the Ladin area. Only in the more remote mountain valleys was Ladin able to survive.
Starting in the very early Middle Ages, the whole area was eventually ruled by the
County of TyrolThe County of Tyrol, Princely County from 1504, was a State of the Holy Roman Empire, from 1814 a province of the Austrian Empire and from 1867 a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria-Hungary...
or the
Bishopric of BrixenThe Bishopric of Brixen is a former Roman Catholic diocese and also a former ecclesiastical state of the Holy Roman Empire in the present province of South Tyrol. The bishopric in the Eisack/Isarco valley was established in the 6th century and gradually received more secular powers...
, both belonging to the realms of the Austrian
HabsburgThe House of Habsburg , also found as Hapsburg, and also known as House of Austria is one of the most important royal houses of Europe and is best known for being an origin of all of the formally elected Holy Roman Emperors between 1438 and 1740, as well as rulers of the Austrian Empire and...
rulers. In the vast multi-ethnic
Holy Roman EmpireThe Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
and then after 1804 the Austrian empire, the Ladins were left in relative peace and were allowed to continue the use of their language and culture. The outbreak of World War I saw heavy battle action in these areas, as the front ran between
Austria-HungaryAustria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
and the Kingdom of Italy.
After the end of the war in 1918, Italy annexed the southern part of Tyrol including the Ladin areas. The Italian nationalistic movement of the 19th and 20th century almost always regarded Ladin as an Italian dialect, a notion that has been repeatedly rejected by most Ladins. The programme of
ItalianizationItalianization or Italianisation is a term used to describe a process of cultural assimilation in which ethnically non or partially Italian people or territory become Italian. The process can be voluntary or forced...
professed by fascists such as
Ettore TolomeiEttore Tolomei was an Italian nationalist and fascist. He was designated a Member of the Italian Senate in 1923, and ennobled in 1937.- Pre-World War I activism :...
and
Benito MussoliniBenito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
added further pressure to the Ladin communities to subordinate their identities as Italians. This included changing Ladin place names into the Italian pronunciation according to Tolomei's
Prontuario dei nomi locali dell'Alto AdigeThe Prontuario dei nomi locali dell'Alto Adige is a list of Italianized toponyms for mostly German place names in South Tyrol which was published in 1916 by the Royal Italian Geographic Society...
.
Following the end of World War II, the
Gruber-De Gasperi AgreementThe Gruber-De Gasperi Agreement, named after the foreign ministers of Austria and Italy , of September 1946, allowed Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol to remain part of Italy, but ensured its autonomy....
of 1946 between Austria and Italy introduced a level of autonomy for Trentino and South Tyrol, but did not include any provisions for Ladins. Only the second autonomy statute for South Tyrol in 1972 started recognising the minority rights for these communities.
Status
Ladin is officially recognised in Trentino and South Tyrol by provincial and national law. Italy signed the
European Charter for Regional or Minority LanguagesThe European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages is a European treaty adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe...
of 1991, but has not ratified it so far. The charter calls for
minority rightsThe term Minority Rights embodies two separate concepts: first, normal individual rights as applied to members of racial, ethnic, class, religious, linguistic or sexual minorities, and second, collective rights accorded to minority groups...
to be respected and
minority languageA minority language is a language spoken by a minority of the population of a territory. Such people are termed linguistic minorities or language minorities.-International politics:...
s, to which Ladin belongs, to be appropriately protected and promoted. Nevertheless starting in the 1990s, various laws and regulations have been passed by the Italian parliament and provincial assembly, that put the Ladin language and culture under protection. A cultural institute was founded by decree, whose purpose is to safeguard and educate on the language and culture. School curricula were adapted in order to teach in Ladin, and street signs are being changed to be bilingual.
Ladin does not enjoy official status and protection in the
Province of BellunoTheThe Province of Belluno is a province in the Veneto region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Belluno.It has an area of 3,678 km², and a total population of 214,026 .-Geography:...
in the
VenetoVeneto is one of the 20 regions of Italy. Its population is about 5 million, ranking 5th in Italy.Veneto had been for more than a millennium an independent state, the Republic of Venice, until it was eventually annexed by Italy in 1866 after brief Austrian and French rule...
region. The wishes of the Ladins there have barely been addressed by the regional government. In a popular referendum in October 2007, the inhabitants of Anpëz overwhelmingly voted to leave Veneto and return to South Tyrol. The redrawing of the provincial borders would see a return of Anpëz, Fodóm and Col to South Tyrol, to which they have traditionally belonged when they were still a part of the
County of TyrolThe County of Tyrol, Princely County from 1504, was a State of the Holy Roman Empire, from 1814 a province of the Austrian Empire and from 1867 a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria-Hungary...
or the
Bishopric of BrixenThe Bishopric of Brixen is a former Roman Catholic diocese and also a former ecclesiastical state of the Holy Roman Empire in the present province of South Tyrol. The bishopric in the Eisack/Isarco valley was established in the 6th century and gradually received more secular powers...
.
Although the Ladin communities are nowadays spread out over three neighbouring regions, the
Union Generala di Ladins dles Dolomites is asking that they be reunited. The
Ladin Autonomist UnionThe Ladin Autonomist Union is a minor progressive political party in the province of Trentino, Italy, which seeks to represent the Ladin minority in the Province and especially that living in Fascia Valley...
and the
FassaFassa is a minor Christian-democratic political party in the province of Trentino, Italy, which seeks to represent the Ladin minority in the Province and especially that living in Fascia Valley...
party run on a Ladin list and have sought more rights and autonomy for Ladin speakers. Ladins are also guaranteed political representations in the assemblies of Trentino and South Tyrol due to a reserved seats system.
In South Tyrol, in order to reach a fair allocation of jobs in public service, a system called "ethnic proportion" was established in the 1970s. Every ten years, when the general census of population takes place, each citizen has to declare to which linguistic group they belong or want to be aggregated to. According to the results it is decided how many potential positions in public service are allocated for each linguistic group. This has enabled Ladins to theoretically receive guaranteed representation in the South Tyrolean civil service according to their numbers.
Subdivisions
The Ladin spoken in the Fascia Valley in Trentino is also subdivided into two further branches: "Cazét" is spoken in the northern half of the valley, whereas "Brach" is spoken in the southern half. For example, in Cazét water is "ega" ("e" pronounced /ɛ/), whereas in Brach it is "aga".
Consonants
| |
Labial Labial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals...
|
Labio-In phonetics, labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth.-Labiodental consonant in IPA:The labiodental consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are:...
dentalIn phonetics, labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth.-Labiodental consonant in IPA:The labiodental consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are:...
|
Dental and
alveolarAlveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth...
|
Alveolo-In phonetics, alveolo-palatal consonants are palatalized postalveolar sounds, usually fricatives and affricates, articulated with the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, and the body of the tongue raised toward the palate...
palatalIn phonetics, alveolo-palatal consonants are palatalized postalveolar sounds, usually fricatives and affricates, articulated with the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, and the body of the tongue raised toward the palate...
|
Post-Postalveolar consonants are consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the back of the alveolar ridge, further back in the mouth than the alveolar consonants, which are at the ridge itself, but not as far back as the hard palate...
alveolarPostalveolar consonants are consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the back of the alveolar ridge, further back in the mouth than the alveolar consonants, which are at the ridge itself, but not as far back as the hard palate...
|
PalatalPalatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate...
|
VelarVelars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum)....
|
GlottalGlottal consonants, also called laryngeal consonants, are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricative, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider...
|
| Nasal A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :...
|
m |
|
n |
|
|
ɲ |
ŋ |
|
| Plosive |
p b |
|
t d |
|
|
|
k ɡ |
|
| Affricate Affricates are consonants that begin as stops but release as a fricative rather than directly into the following vowel.- Samples :...
|
|
|
ts |
tɕ dʑ |
|
|
|
|
| Fricative Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German , the final consonant of Bach; or...
|
|
f v |
s z |
|
ʃ ʒ |
|
|
h |
| Approximant Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no...
|
|
|
ɹ |
|
|
|
|
|
LateralA lateral is an el-like consonant, in which airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth....
|
|
|
l |
|
|
|
|
Vowels
The vowel phonemes of Standard Ladin are shown in the table below:
| Monophthong A monophthong is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation....
s |
Front A front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far in front as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Front vowels are sometimes also...
|
Central A central vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a central vowel is that the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel...
|
Back A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are sometimes also called dark...
|
| Close A close vowel is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a close vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as possible to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.This term is prescribed by the...
|
i |
|
u |
| Close mid |
e |
|
o |
| Open mid |
ɛ |
|
ɔ |
| Open An open vowel is defined as a vowel sound in which the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth. Open vowels are sometimes also called low vowels in reference to the low position of the tongue...
|
a |
The [ɜ] vowel, spelled /ë/, as in Urtijëi , occurs in some local dialects but is not included in Standard Ladin.
Sample text
The first part of the 'Lord's Prayer' in Standard Ladin, Latin and Italian for comparison:
| Ladin |
Latin |
Italian |
English |
Pere nost, che t'ies en ciel,
al sie santifiché ti inom,
al vegne ti regn,
sia fata tia volonté,
coche en ciel enscì en tera. |
Pater noster, qui es in caelis:
sanctificetur Nomen Tuum;
adveniat Regnum Tuum;
fiat voluntas Tua,
sicut in caelo, et in terra. |
Padre nostro che sei nei cieli,
sia santificato il tuo Nome,
venga il tuo Regno,
sia fatta la tua Volontà
come in cielo così in terra.
|
Our Father, who art in heaven,
hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come,
Thy will be done,
on earth as it is in heaven. |
See also
- Friulan language, another Rhaeto-Romance language related to Ladin, also known as Eastern Ladin and spoken mainly in the province of Udine
Further reading
- Rut Bernardi: Curs de gherdëina – Trëdesc lezions per mparé la rujeneda de Gherdëina/Dreizehn Lektionen zur Erlernung der grödnerischen Sprache. Istitut ladin Micurà de Rü, St. Martin in Thurn 1999, ISBN 88-8171-012-9
- Vittorio Dell'Aquila und Gabriele Iannàccaro: Survey Ladins: Usi linguistici nelle Valli Ladine. Autonome Region Trentino-Südtirol, Trient 2006, ISBN 88-86053-69-X
- Marco Forni: Wörterbuch Deutsch–Grödner-Ladinisch. Vocabuler tudësch–ladin de Gherdëina. Istitut ladin Micurà de Rü, St. Martin in Thurn 2002, ISBN 88-8171-033-1
- Günter Holtus, Michael Metzeltin, Christian Schmitt (ed.): Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik (LRL), Tübingen, Niemeyer, 1988-2005 (12 Bände); Band III: Die einzelnen romanischen Sprachen und Sprachgebiete von der Renaissance bis zur Gegenwart. Rumänisch, Dalmatisch / Istroromanisch, Friaulisch, Ladinisch, Bündnerromanisch, 1989.
- Theodor Gartner: Ladinische Wörter aus den Dolomitentälern. Niemeyer, Halle 1913 (Online version)
- Maria Giacin Chiades (ed.): Lingua e cultura ladina. Canova, Treviso 2004, ISBN 88-8409-123-3 (http://www.gbv.de/dms/casalini/05/0507178X.pdf)
- Constanze Kindel: Ladinisch für Anfänger. In: Die Zeit
Die Zeit is a German nationwide weekly newspaper that is highly respected for its quality journalism.With a circulation of 488,036 and an estimated readership of slightly above 2 million, it is the most widely read German weekly newspaper...
4/2006 (Online version)
- Heinrich Schmid
Heinrich Schmid was a Swiss linguist and "father" of the Rhaeto-Romance Dachsprachen Rumantsch Grischun and Ladin Dolomitan....
: Wegleitung für den Aufbau einer gemeinsamen Schriftsprache der Dolomitenladiner. Istitut Cultural Ladin Micurà de Rü, St. Martin in Thurn/Istitut Cultural Ladin Majon di Fascegn, San Giovanni 1994 (Online version)
- Servisc de Planificazion y Elaborazion dl Lingaz Ladin (SPELL): Gramatica dl Ladin Standard. Istitut Cultural Ladin Micurà de Rü, St. Martin in Thurn (u.a.) 2001, ISBN 88-8171-029-3 (http://www.spell-termles.ladinia.net/documents/gramatica_LS_2001.pdf Online version)
External links