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La bohème
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La bohème is an opera in four acts by Giacomo Puccini to an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa, based on Scènes de la vie de bohème by Henri Murger. The world première performance of La bohème was in Turin on February 1, 1896 at the Teatro Regio (now the Teatro Regio Torino) and conducted by the young Arturo Toscanini. Since then La bohème has become part of the standard Italian opera repertory and is one of the most frequently performed operas internationally.
rding to its title page, the libretto of La bohème is based on Henri Murger's novel, Scènes de la vie de bohème.
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Encyclopedia
La bohème is an opera in four acts by Giacomo Puccini to an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa, based on Scènes de la vie de bohème by Henri Murger. The world première performance of La bohème was in Turin on February 1, 1896 at the Teatro Regio (now the Teatro Regio Torino) and conducted by the young Arturo Toscanini. Since then La bohème has become part of the standard Italian opera repertory and is one of the most frequently performed operas internationally.
Origin of the story
According to its title page, the libretto of La bohème is based on Henri Murger's novel, Scènes de la vie de bohème. Murger also collaborated with Théodore Barrière to write an adaptation of the work as a play with a much more unified plot than the novel's collection of vignettes. Puccini rejected the play as a primary source, as its plot runs uncomfortably close to that of La traviata (Mimì is persuaded to leave Rodolfo by her lover's wealthy uncle, who uses the same arguments as Verdi's Germont). However, the libretto does resemble the play in a few respects, such as centering its focus on the relationship between Rodolfo and Mimì, ending with her death.
Much of the libretto is original. The main plots of acts two and three are the librettists' invention, with only a few passing references to incidents and characters in Murger. Most of acts one and four follow the novel, piecing together episodes from various chapters. The final scenes in acts one and four — the scenes with Rodolfo and Mimì — resemble both the play and the novel. The story of their meeting closely follows chapter 18 of the novel, in which the two lovers living in the garret are not Rodolphe and Mimi at all, but rather Jacques and Francine. The story of Mimì's death in the opera draws from two different chapters in the novel, one relating Francine's death and the other relating Mimi's.
The published libretto includes a note from the librettists briefly discussing their adaptation. Without mentioning the play directly, they defend their conflation of Francine and Mimì into a single character: "Chi puo non confondere nel delicato profilo di una sola donna quelli di Mimì e di Francine?" ("Who cannot detect in the delicate profile of one woman the personality both of Mimì and of Francine?") At the time, the novel was in the public domain, Murger having died without heirs, but rights to the play were still controlled by Barrière's heirs.
Puccini's intention to base an opera on Murger's novel appears to date from the winter of 1892–3, shortly before the première of Manon Lescaut. Almost at once it involved him in a controversy in print with composer Ruggero Leoncavallo, who in the columns of his publisher's periodical Il secolo (20 March 1893) claimed precedence in the subject, maintaining that he had already approached the artists whom he had in mind and that Puccini knew this perfectly well. Puccini rebutted the accusation in a letter (dated the following day) to Il corriere della sera and at the same time welcomed the prospect of competing with his rival and allowing the public to judge the winner. He further tried to secure the legal rights to the novel but was unsuccessful as the work was in the public domain. Leoncavallo's used his own libretto for his La bohème, which was premiered in 1897, and focuses more on the Musetta and Marcello relationship, rather than that of Mimì and Rodolfo as in Puccini's version. The winner of the competition between the two is quite clear as Leoncavallo's version is almost never performed, while Puccini's is a staple of the operatic repertoire.
Meaning of the title
Since the 16th century, the French word bohémien was used to refer to gypsies, based on the erroneous belief that they come from Bohemia.[Le Nouveau Petit Robert: Dictionnaire de la langue français, 1993] As gypsies are associated in the common imagination with a wild and free life separate from rigid society, the name came to be associated with the counter-culture of young artists and other rebels in the Latin Quarter of 19th century Paris. This was a common colloquial term in Paris, when Henri Murger used it in the title of the stories which eventually became the basis for the opera. The fame of Murger's stories carried the term to the world beyond Paris and into other languages, such as English, where "bohemian" has a similar connotation.
The word bohème denotes the place where these bohemians live, and thus translates to "Bohemia". When referring to the geographic region, the preferred French spelling was (and is) Bohême, with a circumflex. Murger encouraged the alternate spelling of bohème, with a grave accent, to specify the conceptual Bohemia he wrote about. In the preface to Scènes de la vie de bohème he wrote, "La Bohème, c'est le stage de la vie artistique; c'est la préface de l'Académie, de l'Hôtel-Dieu ou de la Morgue." ("Bohemia is a stage in artistic life; it is the preface to the Academy, the Hôtel-Dieu [hospital], or the Morgue.)
Although Puccini's opera is in Italian, it was given a French title, shortening Murger's title to simply La bohème. A literal translation of this would be "Bohemia" but in the poetic sense of the word, not the geographic. (It has sometimes been rendered in English as "The Bohemian Girl", possibly under the influence of Michael Balfe's opera of that name, but that is erroneous. "The Bohemian girl" (or gypsy girl) would be bohémienne.)
Composing the opera
Puccini began composing snippets of La bohème in the autumn of 1892 but was slow in his progress to seriously tackle the project, partly because he had not yet definitely given up his idea of an opera based on Giovanni Verga's La lupa and partly because he spent much of the next two years travelling all over Europe to supervise performances of Manon Lescaut. By the end of June 1893 Illica and Giacosa had already completed a libretto which was organized into four acts and five scenes: the Bohemians’ garret and the Café Momus (Act 1), the Barrière d’Enfer (Act 2), the courtyard of Musetta's house (Act 3) and Mimì's death in the garret (Act 4). Giacosa felt confident that the libretto was completed and announced in the columns of the Gazzetta musicale di Milano that the text was ready for setting to music. His statement was premature as Puccini and Ricordi required further revisions to the courtyard and Barrière scenes. Unhappy with this response, Giacosa eventually threatened to withdraw from the project in October 1893 but was persuaded by Ricordi to remain.
In the winter of 1893–4, Puccini insisted on jettisoning the courtyard scene and with it Mimì's desertion of Rodolfo for a rich ‘Viscontino’ only to return to the poet in the final act. Both Illica and Giacosa strongly objected to this decision, but Illica finally proposed a solution whereby the last act, instead of opening with Mimì already on her deathbed as originally planned, would begin with a scene for the four Bohemians similar to that of Act 1, while Mimì's absence would be the subject of an aria by Rodolfo. The aria became a duet, but otherwise Illica's scheme was adopted in all essentials.
During 1894, Illica and Giacosa further revised the two self-descriptions of Rodolfo and Mimì’ in Act 1 and their duet "O soave fanciulla". There was also a considerable amount of conflict between the librettists and composer over the Café Momus scene, which was an invention of Puccini's and not based in Murger. At this point the scene was envisaged as a finale to Act 1 and Illica wanted to eliminate it. However, Puccini stoutly defended it and eventually, although it is unclear precisely when, the scene became Act II. Puccini also expressed his own doubts during this period about the Barriére d’Enfer, a scene that owes nothing to Murger and which the composer felt gave insufficient scope for musical development. His suggestion that they replace it with another episode from Murger's novel was curtly refused by Illica.
In the summer of 1894, having finally abandoned the La lupa project, Puccini began to seriously work on the composition of La bohème. During this time the librettists’ work consisted mostly of elimination, extending even to details on whose inclusion Puccini had originally insisted, such as a drinking song (a brindisi celebrating the virtues of water) and a diatribe against women, both allocated to Schaunard. After roughly six months of hard work, the score was completed on 10 December 1895.
Performance history
Puccini initially wanted the opera's première to take place at La Scala but the prospect was not possible since the current management of the house was publisher Edoardo Sonzogno, who made a point of excluding all Ricordi scores from the repertory. Puccini therefore decided to première the work at the Teatro Regio Torino, where Manon Lescaut had received its première three years earlier.
The opera opened to much hype but the public and critical response was mixed, partly due to the comparisons with Manon Lescaut and the expectation that Puccini would continue in a similar vein. In general, reviews looked favourably upon Acts 1 and 4, but criticized Acts 2 and 3 for falling in the direction of triviality. However, the opera grew on the Italian public and productions soon rapidly spread across the nation. A performance at the Teatro Argentina, Rome, under Edoardo Mascheroni (23 February 1897) introduced Rosina Storchio as Musetta, a role in which she later excelled. A revival at the Politeama Garibaldi, Palermo (24 April 1897) under Leopoldo Mugnone included for the first time the Act 2 episode where Mimì shows off her bonnet. On this occasion Rodolfo and Mimì were played by Edoardo Garbin and Adelina Stehle (the original young lovers of Verdi's Falstaff), who did much to make La bohème popular in southern Italy in the years that followed.
Outside Italy most premières of La bohème were given in smaller theatres and in the vernacular of the country. In Paris it was first given in 1898 by the Opéra-Comique, as La vie de bohème, and achieved its 1000th performance there in 1951. After a performance at Covent Garden by the visiting Carl Rosa company in 1897 La bohème first established itself in the repertory of the Royal Italian Opera on 1 July 1899 with a cast that included Nellie Melba (Mimì), Zélie de Lussan (Musetta), Alessandro Bonci (Rodolfo), Mario Ancona (Marcello) and Marcel Journet (Colline). From then on its fortunes in Britain and America were largely associated with Melba, who was partnered, among others, by Fernando de Lucia, John McCormack, Giovanni Martinelli and, most memorably of all, Enrico Caruso. The opera premiered in the US in Los Angeles on October 14, 1897 at the New Los Angeles Theater. The initial performance was sparsely attended; less than half of the theater's seating capacity was filled. At the time, Los Angeles had a population of around 100,000.
In 1946, fifty years after the opera's premiere, Toscanini conducted a performance of it on U.S. radio, and this performance was eventually released on records and on compact disc. It is the only recording of a Puccini opera by its original conductor (see Selected recordings below). La bohème currently appears as number 2 on Opera America's list of the 20 most-performed operas in North America, second only to Madama Butterfly, also composed by Puccini. Today La bohème remains,with Tosca and Madama Butterfly, one of the central pillars of the Italian repertory.
Roles
| Role | Voice type | Premiere Cast, 1 February 1896
(Conductor: Arturo Toscanini) |
|---|
| Rodolfo, a poet | tenor | Evan Gorga | | Mimì, a seamstress | soprano | Cesira Ferrani | | Marcello, a painter | baritone | Tieste Wilmant | | Schaunard, a musician | baritone | Antonio Pini-Corsi | | Colline, a philosopher | bass | Michele Mazzara | | Musetta, a singer | soprano | Camilla Pasini | | Benoît, their landlord | bass | Alessandro Polonini | | Alcindoro, a state councillor | bass | Alessandro Polonini | | Parpignol, a toy vendor | tenor | Dante Zucchi | | A customs Sergeant | bass | Felice Fogli | | Students, working girls, townsfolk, shopkeepers, street-vendors, soldiers, waiters, children |
Synopsis
The story is set in Paris in the period around 1830.
It essentially focuses on the love between the seamstress called Mimì and the poet Rodolfo. They almost immediately fall in love with each other, but Rodolfo later wants to leave Mimì because of her flirtatious behavior. However, Mimì also happens to be mortally ill, and Rodolfo also feels guilt, since their life together likely had worsened her health even further. They reunite for a brief moment at the end before Mimì dies.
Act 1
In the four bohemians' garret
Marcello is painting while Rodolfo gazes out of the window. In order to keep warm, they burn the manuscript of Rodolfo's drama. Colline, the philosopher, enters shivering and disgruntled at not having been able to pawn some books. Schaunard, the musician of the group, arrives with food, firewood, wine, cigars, and money, and he explains the source of his riches, a job with an eccentric English gentleman. The others hardly listen to his tale as they fall ravenously upon the food. Schaunard interrupts them by whisking the meal away and declaring that they will all celebrate his good fortune by dining at Cafe Momus instead.
While they drink, Benoît, the landlord, arrives to collect the rent. They flatter him and ply him with wine. In his drunkenness, he recites his amorous adventures, but when he also declares he is married, they thrust him from the room — without the rent payment — in comic moral indignation. The rent money is divided for their carousal in the Quartier Latin.
The other Bohemians go out, but Rodolfo remains alone for a moment in order to finish an article he is writing, promising to join his friends soon. There is a knock at the door, and Mimì, a seamstress who lives in another room in the building, enters. Her candle has blown out, and she has no matches; she asks Rodolfo to light it. She thanks him, but returns a few seconds later, saying she has lost her key. Both candles are extinguished; the pair stumble in the dark. Rodolfo, eager to spend time with Mimì, finds the key and pockets it, feigning innocence. In two arias (Rodolfo's Che gelida manina – "What a cold little hand" and Mimì's Sì, mi chiamano Mimì – "Yes, they call me Mimì"), they tell each other about their different backgrounds. Impatiently, the waiting friends call Rodolfo, but, while he suggests remaining at home with Mimì, she decides to accompany him. As they leave, they sing of their newfound love (duet, Rodolfo and Mimì: O soave fanciulla – "Oh gentle maiden").
Act 2
Quartier Latin
A great crowd has gathered with street sellers announcing their wares (chorus: Aranci, datteri! Caldi i marroni! – "Oranges, dates! Hot chestnuts!"). The friends appear, flushed with gaiety; Rodolfo buys Mimì a bonnet from a vendor. Parisians gossip with friends and bargain with the vendors; the children of the streets clamor to see the wares of Parpignol, the toy seller. The friends enter the Cafe Momus.
As the men and Mimì dine at the cafe, Musetta, formerly Marcello's sweetheart, arrives with her rich (and aging) government minister admirer, Alcindoro, to whom she speaks as she might to a lapdog. It is clear she has tired of him. To the delight of the Parisians and the embarrassment of her patron, she sings a risqué song (Musetta's waltz: Quando me n’vò – "When I go along"), hoping to reclaim Marcello's attention. Soon Marcello is burning with jealousy. To be rid of Alcindoro for a bit, Musetta pretends to be suffering from a tight shoe and sends him with it to the shoemaker to be fixed. During the melee that follows, Musetta and Marcello fall into each other's arms and reconcile.
The friends are presented with the bill and to their consternation find that Schaunard's money is not enough to pay it. The sly Musetta has the entire bill charged to Alcindoro. The sound of approaching soldiers is heard, and, picking up Musetta, Marcello and Colline carry her out on their shoulders amid the applause of the spectators. When all have gone, Alcindoro arrives with the repaired shoe seeking Musetta. The waiter hands him the bill, and, horror-stricken at the charge, Alcindoro sinks into a chair.
Act 3
At the toll gate
Peddlers pass through the barriers and enter the city. Amongst them is Mimì, coughing violently. She tries to find Marcello, who lives in a little tavern nearby where he paints signs for the innkeeper. She tells him of her hard life with Rodolfo, who has abandoned her that night (O buon Marcello, aiuto! – "Oh, good Marcello, help me!"). Marcello tells her that Rodolfo is asleep inside, but he wakes up and comes out looking for Marcello. Mimì hides and overhears Rodolfo first telling Marcello that he left Mimì because of her coquettishness, but finally confessing that he fears she is slowly being consumed by a deadly illness (most likely tuberculosis, known by the catchall name "consumption" in the nineteenth century). Rodolfo, in his poverty, can do little to help Mimì and hopes that his pretended unkindness will inspire her to seek another, wealthier suitor (Marcello, finalmente – "Marcello, finally"). Out of kindness towards Mimì, Marcello tries to silence him, but she has already heard all. Her coughing reveals her presence, and Rodolfo and Mimì sing of their lost love. They make plans to separate amicably (Mimì: Donde lieta uscì – "From here she happily left"), but their love for one another is too strong. As a compromise, they agree to remain together until the spring, when the world is coming to life again and no one feels truly alone. Meanwhile, Marcello has joined Musetta, and the couple quarrel fiercely: an antithetical counterpoint to the other pair's reconciliation (quartet: Mimì, Rodolfo, Musetta, Marcello: Addio dolce svegliare alla mattina! – "Goodbye, sweet awakening in the morning!").
Act 4
Back in the garret
Marcello and Rodolfo are seemingly at work, though they are primarily bemoaning the loss of their respective loves (duet: O Mimì, tu più non torni – "O Mimì, will you not return?"). Schaunard and Colline arrive with a very frugal dinner and all parody eating a plentiful banquet, dance together, and sing. Musetta arrives with news: Mimì, who took up with a wealthy viscount after leaving Rodolfo in the spring, has left her patron. Musetta has found her wandering the streets, severely weakened by her illness, and has brought her back to the garret. Mimì, haggard and pale, is assisted into a chair. Musetta and Marcello leave to sell Musetta's earrings in order to buy medicine, and Colline leaves to pawn his overcoat (Vecchia zimarra – "Old coat"). Schaunard, urged by Colline, quietly departs to give Mimì and Rodolfo time together. Left alone, they recall their past happiness (duet, Mimì and Rodolfo: Sono andati? – "Have they gone?"). They relive their first meeting — the candles, the lost key — and, to Mimì's delight, Rodolfo presents her with the pink bonnet he bought her, which he has kept as a souvenir of their love. The others return, with a gift of a muff to warm Mimì's hands and some medicine, and tell Rodolfo that a doctor has been summoned, but it is too late to help their friend, who lapses into unconsciousness. As Musetta prays, Mimì dies. Schaunard discovers Mimì lifeless. Rodolfo cries out Mimì's name in anguish, and weeps helplessly.
Orchestration
La bohème is scored for:
Woodwinds:
- 2 Flutes
- Piccolo
- 2 Oboes
- Cor Anglais
- 2 Clarinets
- Bass clarinet
- 2 Bassoons
Brass:
- 4 Horns
- 3 Trumpets
- 3 Trombones
- Bass trombone
Harp
Percussion:
- Timpani
- Drum
- Triangle
- Cymbal
- Bass drum
- Xylophone
- Glockenspiel
- Campanelle ("little bell")
Strings:
- Violins I, II
- Viola
- Violoncello
- Contrabass
Selected recordings
| Year | Cast
(Rodolfo, Mimì, Musetta, Marcello, Colline, Schaunard) | Conductor,
Opera House and Orchestra | Label |
|---|
| 1938 | Beniamino Gigli,
Licia Albanese,
Tatiana Menotti,
Afro Poli,
Duilio Baronti,
Aristide Baracchi | Umberto Berrettoni,
Teatro alla Scala Orchestra and Chorus | Audio CD: Naxos Historical
Cat: 8.110072-73 | | 1942 | Frederick Jagel,
Grace Moore,
Frances Greer,
Francesco Valentino,
Ezio Pinza,
Wilfred Engelman | Cesare Sodero,
Metropolitan Opera Orchestra and Chorus | Audio CD: Line Music
Cat: 5.00284
ASIN: B0007V43EQ | | 1946 | Jan Peerce,
Licia Albanese,
Anne McKnight,
Francesco Valentino,
George Cehanovsky,
Nicola Moscona | Arturo Toscanini,
NBC Symphony Orchestra and Chorus | Audio CD: Line Music
Cat: 5.00294
ASIN: B00000I6N5 | | 1956 | Jussi Björling,
Victoria de los Ángeles,
Lucine Amara,
Robert Merrill,
Giorgio Tozzi,
John Rearden | Thomas Beecham,
RCA Victor Orchestra and Chorus | Audio CD: EMI Classics
Cat: 7243-5-67753-2-9 | | 1956 | Giuseppe di Stefano
Maria Callas,
Anna Moffo
Rolando Panerai
Nicola Zaccaria
Manuel Spatafora | Antonino Votto,
La Scala Chorus and Orchestra | Audio CD: EMI Classics | | 1959 | Carlo Bergonzi,
Renata Tebaldi,
Gianna d'Angelo,
Ettore Bastianini,
Cesare Siepi,
Renato Cesari | Tullio Serafin,
Coro e Orchestra dell'Accademia di Santa Cecilia | Audio CD: Decca | | 1961 | Richard Tucker,
Anna Moffo,
Mary Costa,
Robert Merrill,
Giorgio Tozzi,
Philip Maero | Erich Leinsdorf,
Rome Opera Chrorus and Orchestra | Audio CD: RCA Victor | | 1972 | Luciano Pavarotti,
Mirella Freni,
Elizabeth Harwood,
Rolando Panerai,
Gianni Maffeo,
Nicolai Ghiaurov | Herbert von Karajan,
Berliner Philharmoniker | Audio CD: Decca
Cat: 421245 | | 1973 | Plácido Domingo,
Montserrat Caballé,
Judith Blegen,
Alan Byers,
Nico Castel,
Sherrill Milnes | Georg Solti | Audio CD: RCA Victor | | 1979 | José Carreras,
Katia Ricciarelli,
Ashley Putnam,
Francis Egerton,
Håkan Hagegård,
Robert Lloyd | Colin Davis,
Covent Garden Orchestra and Chorus | Audio CD: Philips
Cat: 4422602 | | 1999 | Roberto Alagna,
Angela Gheorghiu,
Elisabetta Scano,
Simon Keenlyside,
Ildebrando D'Arcangelo,
Roberto Di Candia | Riccardo Chailly,
La Scala Chorus and Orchestra | Audio CD: Decca | | 2008 | Rolando Villazón,
Anna Netrebko,
Nicole Cabell,
Boaz Daniel,
Stephane Degout,
Vitalij Kowaljow | Bertrand de Billy,
Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra | Audio CD: Deutsche Grammophon
Cat: 477 6600 |
Note: "Cat:" is short for catalogue number by the label company; "ASIN" is amazon.com product reference number.
Derivative works
In 1959 "Musetta's Waltz" was adapted by songwriter Bobby Worth for the 1959 pop song "Don't You Know?", a hit for Della Reese. The opera was also adapted into a 1983 short story form by the novelist V. S. Pritchett for publication by the Metropolitan Opera Association. La bohème was the basis for Jonathan Larson's 1996 Tony Award-winning Broadway musical Rent.
Modernizations
Baz Luhrmann produced the opera for Opera Australia in 1990 with modernized supertitle translations, and a budget of only AU$60,000. A DVD was issued of the stage show. This version was set in 1957, rather than the original period of 1830. The reason for updating La bohème to this period, according to Baz Luhrmann, was that "... [they] discovered that 1957 was a very, very accurate match for the social and economic realities of Paris in the 1840s." In 2002, Luhrmann restaged his version on Broadway and won a Tony Award. To play the eight performances per week on Broadway, three casts of Mimìs and Rodolfos, and two Musettas and Marcellos, were used in rotation.
External links
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