Krystyna Skarbek, GMThe George Medal is the second level civil decoration of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth.The GM was instituted on 24 September 1940 by King George VI. At this time, during the height of The Blitz, there was a strong desire to reward the many acts of civilian courage...
, OBEThe Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry established on 4 June 1917 by King George V. The Order includes five classes in civil and military divisions...
, Croix de guerreThe croix de guerre is a military decoration of both France and Belgium, where it is also known as the Oorlogskruis . It was first created in 1915 in both countries and consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins...
(1 May 1915 – 15 June 1952) was a Polish-born
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
BritishGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
Special Operations ExecutiveThe Special Operations Executive was a World War II organisation of the United Kingdom. It was officially formed by Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Minister of Economic Warfare Hugh Dalton on 22 July 1940, to conduct warfare by means other than direct military engagement...
(SOE)
agentSPY may refer to: * SPY , ticker symbol for Standard & Poor's Depositary Receipts* SPY , a satirical monthly, trademarked all-caps* SPY , airport code for San Pédro, Côte d'Ivoire* SPY , a U.S...
.
In 1941 she began using the name
Christine Granville, which she legally adopted after the war.
She became celebrated especially for her daring exploits in intelligence and sabotage missions to
Nazi-occupiedNazism, known officially in German as National Socialism , is the totalitarian ideology and practices of the Nazi Party or National Socialist German Workers’ Party under Adolf Hitler, and the policies adopted by the dictatorial government of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945.Nazism is often considered...
PolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe . Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
and
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
. She became a British agent months before the SOE was founded in July 1940 and was one of the longest-serving of all Britain's wartime women agents. Her resourcefulness and success have been credited with influencing the
sabotageSabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening another entity through subversion, obstruction, disruption, or destruction. In a workplace setting, sabotage is the conscious withdrawal of efficiency generally directed at causing some change in workplace conditions...
organization's policy of recruiting increasing numbers of women.
Early life
Krystyna Skarbek was born on an estate at Młodzieszyn, 56 km (35 miles) west of
WarsawWarsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River roughly from both the Baltic Sea coast and the Carpathian Mountains. Its population as of 2009 was estimated at 1,709,781, and the Warsaw metropolitan area at approximately 2,785,000...
, to Count Jerzy Skarbek, a Roman Catholic, and Stefania,
née Goldfeder, the daughter of a wealthy assimilated Jewish banker. Skarbek had married Stefania, in late December 1899, because he needed her dowry to pay his debts and to continue living the lavish style to which he was accustomed.
The couple's first child,
Andrzej (Andrew), took after the mother's side of the family. Their subsequent daughter Krystyna, however, inherited her father's good looks and his liking for riding horses, which she sat astride, rather than side-saddle. She eventually also became an expert skier during visits to
ZakopaneZakopane is a town in southern Poland with some 28,000 inhabitants , situated in Lesser Poland Province since 1999...
in the mountains of southern Poland. From the start, there was a complete rapport between father and daughter, who needed little encouragement to become a tomboy.
It was at the family stables that Christine first met
Andrzej KowerskiAndrzej Kowerski was a Polish Army officer and SOE agent in World War II.-Life:During the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, Lieutenant Kowerski fought gallantly as a member of Poland's 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, winning his country's highest military decoration, the Virtuti...
, whose father had brought him over to play with ten-year-old Christine while he himself discussed agricultural matters with her father the Count.
The 1920s placed the family in straitened circumstances, and they had to give up their country estate, then
Trzebnica, some forty miles from the provincial town of Piotrków, and move to
WarsawWarsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River roughly from both the Baltic Sea coast and the Carpathian Mountains. Its population as of 2009 was estimated at 1,709,781, and the Warsaw metropolitan area at approximately 2,785,000...
. In 1930 Count Jerzy died; at the same time, the Goldfeder financial empire had almost completely collapsed, and there was barely enough money to support the widowed Countess Stefania. Krystyna, not wishing to be a burden to her mother, took a job at a
FiatFiat Automobiles S.p.A. is an Italian automaker which produces Fiat branded cars, and is part of Fiat Group Automobiles S.p.A.. This is a division of Fiat Group, the largest automobile manufacturer in Italy...
dealership, but soon became ill from auto fumes and had to give up the job. At first she was thought erroneously, on the basis of shadows on her chest x-rays, to be suffering from
tuberculosisTuberculosis is a common and often deadly infectious disease caused by mycobacteria...
, which had killed her father. She received compensation from her employer's insurance company and took her physicians' advice to lead as much of an open-air life as she could. She began spending a great deal of time hiking and skiing the
Tatra MountainsThe Tatra Mountains, Tatras or Tatra , constitute a mountain range which forms a natural border between Slovakia and Poland. They occupy an area of 750 km², the major part of which lies in Slovakia. The highest mountain is Gerlach at 2,655 m, located in Slovakia just north of Poprad...
of southern Poland.
Krystyna married a young businessman, Karol Getlich; but the couple were incompatible, and the marriage soon ended without rancor. A subsequent love affair came to nought when the young man's mother refused to consider the penniless divorcée as a potential daughter-in-law.
One day, on a
ZakopaneZakopane is a town in southern Poland with some 28,000 inhabitants , situated in Lesser Poland Province since 1999...
ski slope, Krystyna lost control and was saved from potential disaster by a giant of a man who stepped into her path and stopped her descent. Her rescuer was Jerzy (in
EnglishEnglish is a West Germanic language that developed in England during the Anglo-Saxon era. As a result of the military, economic, scientific, political, and cultural influence of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, and of the United States since the mid 20th century,...
, George) Giżycki, a brilliant, moody, irascible eccentric. He came from a wealthy family in
UkraineUkraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east; Belarus to the north; Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; Romania and Moldova to the southwest; and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south. The city of Kiev is both the capital and the largest city of...
and had quarreled with his father at fourteen, run away from home, worked in the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
as a cowboy and gold prospector, and had become an author who traveled the world in search of material for his books and articles. He knew
AfricaAfrica is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With a billion people in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.8% of the...
well and hoped one day to return there.
On 2 November 1938, Krystyna married Jerzy Giżycki at the Evangelical Reformed Church in Warsaw. Soon after, he accepted a diplomatic posting to
EthiopiaEthiopia , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country situated in the Horn of Africa. Ethiopia is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Sudan to the west, Kenya to the south, Somalia to the east and Djibouti to the northeast. Its size is 1,100,000 km² with an...
, where he served as Poland’s
consul generalA consul general heads a consulate general and is a consul of the highest rank serving at a principal location and usually responsible for other consular offices within a country. The Counsul General serves as an adviser who speaks on behalf of his or her state in the country to which he or she is...
until September 1939, when
Germany invaded PolandThe Invasion of Poland, also known as the September Campaign or 1939 Defensive War in Poland and the Poland Campaign in Germany, was an invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and a small Slovak contingent that marked the start of World War II...
. Skarbek would later refer to Giżycki as having been "my
SvengaliSvengali is the name of a fictional character in George du Maurier's 1894 novel Trilby. A sensation in its day, the novel created a stereotype of the evil hypnotist that persists to this day...
for so many years that he would never believe that I could ever leave him for good."
London
Upon the outbreak of
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, the couple sailed for
London[]London is the capital of England and the United Kingdom. It has been a major settlement for two millennia, and the history of London goes back to its founding by the Romans, when it was named Londinium. London's core, the ancient City of London, the 'square mile', retains its medieval boundaries...
,
EnglandEngland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, where Skarbek sought to offer her services in the struggle against the common enemy. British authorities showed little interest but were eventually convinced by her acquaintances, including journalist and
Secret Intelligence ServiceThe Secret Intelligence Service , colloquially known as MI6 is the United Kingdom's external intelligence agency, part of the country's intelligence community. Under the direction of the Joint Intelligence Committee , it works alongside the Security Service , Government Communications Headquarters...
contact Frederick Augustus Voigt.
Hungary
Skarbek left for
HungaryHungary , in English officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe, bordered by Austria, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. Its capital is Budapest. Hungary is a member of OECD, NATO, EU, V4 and is a Schengen state...
, where in December 1939 she persuaded skeptical prewar Polish
OlympicThe Olympic Games are a major international event of summer and winter sports, in which thousands of athletes compete in a wide variety of events. The Games are currently held every two years, with Summer and Winter Olympic Games alternating. Originally, the ancient Olympic Games were held in...
skier Jan Marusarz, brother of the more famous Olympian Stanisław Marusarz, to escort her across the snow-covered
Tatra MountainsThe Tatra Mountains, Tatras or Tatra , constitute a mountain range which forms a natural border between Slovakia and Poland. They occupy an area of 750 km², the major part of which lies in Slovakia. The highest mountain is Gerlach at 2,655 m, located in Slovakia just north of Poprad...
into Poland. Arriving in Warsaw, she vainly pleaded with her mother to leave Nazi-occupied Poland. Stefania Skarbek refused to and died at the hands of the occupying Germans in Warsaw's
PawiakPawiak was an infamous political prison built in 1835 in Warsaw, Poland. During the World War II German occupation of Poland, it eventually became part of the Warsaw concentration camp.-History:...
prison. In the mid-19th century, her great-great-uncle Fryderyk Florian Skarbek, a prison reformer, had been instrumental in getting the Pawiak built.
An incident that probably dates to Skarbek's first visit to Poland, in February 1940, illustrates the hazards that she faced while working on her home turf. At a Warsaw café she was hailed by a woman acquaintance: "Krystyna! Krystyna Skarbek! What are you doing here? We heard that you'd gone abroad!" When Skarbek denied that her name was Krystyna Skarbek, the lady answered that she would have
sworn she was Krystyna Skarbek—the resemblance was positively uncanny! After the woman left, Skarbek, to minimize suspicion, tarried a while before leaving the café.
Krystyna Skarbek helped organize a system of Polish couriers that brought intelligence reports from Warsaw to Budapest. Her cousin Ludwik Popiel managed to smuggle out of Poland via the
Tatra MountainsThe Tatra Mountains, Tatras or Tatra , constitute a mountain range which forms a natural border between Slovakia and Poland. They occupy an area of 750 km², the major part of which lies in Slovakia. The highest mountain is Gerlach at 2,655 m, located in Slovakia just north of Poprad...
the unique Polish anti-tank rifle, model 35, with the stock and barrel sawed off for easier transport. Skarbek for a time concealed it in her Budapest apartment. However, it never saw wartime service with the
AlliesThe Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . The involvement of the Allies in World War II was either natural and inevitable they were invaded or under the direct threat of invasion by the Axis or compelled by concerns that the Axis powers...
, as the designs and specifications had deliberately been destroyed in Poland upon the outbreak of war and there was no time to attempt
reverse engineeringReverse engineering is the process of discovering the technological principles of a device, object or system through analysis of its structure, function and operation...
. Captured stocks of the Polish anti-tank rifle were, however, used by the Germans and Italians.
In Hungary, Skarbek met a Polish Army officer,
Andrzej KowerskiAndrzej Kowerski was a Polish Army officer and SOE agent in World War II.-Life:During the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, Lieutenant Kowerski fought gallantly as a member of Poland's 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, winning his country's highest military decoration, the Virtuti...
(1912–88), who would later use the British
nom de guerre "Andrew Kennedy". Skarbek had first met him as a child and had briefly encountered him again before the war at
ZakopaneZakopane is a town in southern Poland with some 28,000 inhabitants , situated in Lesser Poland Province since 1999...
. Kowerski, who had lost part of his leg in a prewar hunting accident, was now
exfiltratingExfiltration is military jargon for exiting an area . Exfiltration is the opposite of infiltration.The removal of personnel or units from area under enemy control...
Polish and other Allied military personnel and collecting
intelligenceIntelligence refers to discrete information with currency and relevance, and the abstraction, evaluation, and understanding of such information for its accuracy and value...
.
Skarbek showed her penchant for stratagem when she and Kowerski were arrested by the German
GestapoThe was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning in April 1934, it was under the overall administration of the Schutzstaffel under Heinrich Himmler in his position as leader of the SS and Chief of German Police...
in January 1941. She managed to win their release by feigning symptoms of pulmonary
tuberculosisTuberculosis is a common and often deadly infectious disease caused by mycobacteria...
by biting her tongue until it bled. Skarbek was distantly related to the Hungarian Regent, Admiral
Miklós HorthyMiklós Horthy de Nagybánya was the Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary during the interwar years and throughout most of World War II, serving from 1 March 1920 to 15 October 1944...
, since a cousin from the Lwów side of the family had married a relative of Horthy. The pair made good their escape from Hungary via the
BalkansThe Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
and
TurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey
, is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in Western Asia and Thrace in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe...
.
Cairo
Upon their arrival at SOE offices in
CairoCairo is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab World. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a center of the region's political and cultural life...
,
EgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia...
, it came as a shock to them that they were under suspicion due to her contacts with a Polish intelligence organization called the "Musketeers". This group had been formed in October 1939 by engineer-inventor Stefan Witkowski, who would be assassinated by parties unknown in October 1942. Another source of suspicion against Skarbek and Kowerski was the ease with which Skarbek had managed to obtain transit visas through French-governed
SyriaSyria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south and Israel to the southwest....
from the pro-
Vichy FrenchVichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944. This government, which succeeded the Third Republic, officially called itself the French State , in contrast with the previous designation, "French Republic." Marshal...
consul-Ancient Rome:During the time of ancient Rome as a Republic, the consuls were the highest civil and military magistrates, serving as the heads of government for the Republic. New consuls were elected every year. There were two consuls, and they ruled together...
in
IstanbulIstanbul is the largest city in Turkey and fifth largest city proper in the world with a population of 12.6 million. Istanbul is also a megacity, as well as the cultural and financial centre of Turkey. The city covers 39 districts of the Istanbul province...
. Only German spies, some Polish intelligence officers believed, could have obtained the visas.
There were also specific suspicions about Kowerski. These were addressed in
London[]London is the capital of England and the United Kingdom. It has been a major settlement for two millennia, and the history of London goes back to its founding by the Romans, when it was named Londinium. London's core, the ancient City of London, the 'square mile', retains its medieval boundaries...
by General
Colin GubbinsMajor-General Sir Colin McVean Gubbins KCMG, DSO, MC was the prime mover of the Special Operations Executive in the Second World War....
—to be, from 1943, head of SOE—in a letter of 17 June 1941 to Polish Commander-in-Chief and Premier Władysław Sikorski:
Kowerski eventually cleared up any misunderstandings with General Kopański and was able to resume intelligence work. Similarly, when Skarbek visited Polish military headquarters in her British
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
uniform, she was treated by the Polish military chiefs with the highest respect.
It could not but have helped that in the meantime Germany had invaded the
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
(22 June 1941), as her intelligence obtained from the Musketeers had predicted. It is now known that advance information about
Operation BarbarossaOperation Barbarossa was the code name for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that began on 22 June 1941. Over 4.5 million troops of the Axis powers invaded the USSR along a 2,900 km front...
had also been provided by a number of other sources, including
UltraUltra was the name used by the British for intelligence resulting from decryption of encrypted German radio communications in World War II. The term eventually became the standard designation in both Britain and the United States for all intelligence from high-level cryptanalytic sources...
.
Jerzy Giżycki, Skarbek's husband, upon being informed that Wilkinson had told Skarbek and Kowerski that their services were being dispensed with, took umbrage and abruptly bowed out of his own career as a British intelligence agent. When Skarbek told her husband that she loved Kowerski, Giżycki left for London, eventually emigrating to
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. They would be formally divorced at the Polish consulate in Berlin on 1 August 1946.
Krystyna Skarbek was sidelined from mainstream action.
Vera AtkinsVera Atkins, CBE was a British Intelligence Officer during World War II.-Early life:...
, assistant to the head of F Section, would later describe Skarbek as a very brave woman, but a law unto herself and a loner.
France
Skarbek's situation changed greatly in 1944, with a turn of events that would lead to some of her most famous exploits. Fluent in
FrenchFrench is a Romance language globally spoken by about 65 million people as a first language , by 50 million as a second language, and by about another 200 million people as an acquired foreign language, with significant speakers in 57 countries. Most native speakers of the language live in France,...
, she was offered to SOE's teams in France, under the
nom de guerre "Madame Pauline". The offer was timely: SOE was running short of trained operatives to cover the increased demands being placed on it in the run-up to the invasion of France. New operatives were already in training, but the work took time and, if inserted into occupied Europe before they had absorbed the numerous skills, physical and intellectual, required for survival, the operatives could compromise not only themselves but their SOE colleagues already safely established and also any members of the French Resistance with whom they worked. Skarbek had an existing track record of successful courier work in occupied Europe and would need only a little
"refresher" work and some guidance as to the particular circumstances relating to France. There was one particular need that required urgent attention: the replacement of a lost courier on a busy circuit that would be among the first to meet the proposed Allied landings. Skarbek was therefore chosen to replace the SOE agent
Cecily LefortCecily Lefort was a British SOE agent, during World War II.-Early life:Born as Cecily Margot MacKenzie in London of Scottish ancestry, she lived on the coast of Brittany in France from the age of 24 with her French husband, Dr...
, who had been captured, tortured and executed by the
GestapoThe was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning in April 1934, it was under the overall administration of the Schutzstaffel under Heinrich Himmler in his position as leader of the SS and Chief of German Police...
.
The SOE had several branches working in France and though most of the women in France answered to F Section in London, Skarbek's mission was launched from
AlgiersAlgiers is the capital and largest city of Algeria, and the second largest city in the Maghreb . According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630...
, the base of the AMF Section. This factor, combined with Skarbek's absence from the usual SOE training program, sometimes intrigues researchers. AMF Section was only set up in the wake of the Allied landings in
North AfricaNorth Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa.Geopolitically, the UN definition of Northern Africa includes the following seven countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia,Mauritania, and...
, '
Operation TorchOperation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started 8 November 1942....
', partly with staff from London (F Section) and partly with staff from
CairoCairo is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab World. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a center of the region's political and cultural life...
(MO.4). AMF Section served three purposes: first, it was simpler and safer to run the resupply operations from Allied North Africa than from London, across German-occupied France; secondly, since the South of France would be liberated by separate Allied landings there ("
Operation DragoonOperation Dragoon was the Allied invasion of southern France, on August 15, 1944, as part of World War II. The invasion took place between Toulon and Cannes.- Background :...
"), SOE units in the area needed to be transferred in order to have links with those headquarters, not with forces for
NormandyNormandy is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. It is situated along the English Channel coast of Northern France between Brittany and Picardy and comprises territory in northern France and the Channel Islands.Normandy is divided between French and British...
; thirdly, AMF Section tapped into the skills of the French in North Africa, who did not generally support
Charles de GaulleCharles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II...
and who had been linked with opposition in the former "
Unoccupied ZoneVichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944. This government, which succeeded the Third Republic, officially called itself the French State , in contrast with the previous designation, "French Republic." Marshal...
".
After the two invasions, the distinctions became irrelevant and almost all the SOE Sections in France would be united, with the
MaquisMaquis or 'macchia' is a type of high ground in Corsica covered in thick vegetation, where privateers used to hide. The name has been adopted by a variety of guerilla movements in francophone countries.Maquis may also refer to:-Geography:...
, into the
Forces Francaises de l'Interieur, or
FFI. (There was one exception: the EU/P Section, which was formed by Poles in France and remained part of the trans-European Polish Resistance movement, under Polish command.) Skarbek — under the assumed identity of "Pauline Armand" — parachuted into southeastern France on 6 July 1944 and became part of the "Jockey" network directed by a Belgian-British lapsed pacifist,
Francis CammaertsFrancis Charles Albert Cammaerts DSO was an outstanding Special Operations Executive agent who organised French Resistance groups to sabotage German communications in occupied France.-Early life:...
. She assisted Cammaerts by linking
ItalianItaly , officially the Italian Republic , is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia...
partisanA partisan is a member of an irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation. The term can apply to the field element of resistance movements that opposed German rule in several countries during World War II .- History :As early as the...
s and French
MaquisThe Maquis were the predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance. Initially they were composed of men who had escaped into the mountains to avoid conscription into Vichy France's Service du travail obligatoire to provide forced labour for Germany...
for joint operations against the Germans in the
AlpsThe Alps are one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east; through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany; to France in the west....
, and by inducing non-Germans, especially conscripted Poles, in the German occupation forces to defect to the Allies.
On 13 August 1944, at Digne, two days before the Allied
Operation DragoonOperation Dragoon was the Allied invasion of southern France, on August 15, 1944, as part of World War II. The invasion took place between Toulon and Cannes.- Background :...
landings in southern France, Cammaerts,
Xan FieldingXan Fielding, born Alexander Wallace Fielding DSO, was a British writerand translator, noted for his English translations of Planet of the Apesand The Bridge on the River Kwai, both by Pierre Boulle....
— another SOE agent, who had previously operated in
CreteCrete is the largest of the Greek islands and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea at 8,336 km²...
— and a French officer, Christian Sorensen, were arrested at a roadblock by the
GestapoThe was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning in April 1934, it was under the overall administration of the Schutzstaffel under Heinrich Himmler in his position as leader of the SS and Chief of German Police...
. Skarbek, learning that they were to be executed, managed to meet with Captain Albert Schenck, an
AlsatianAlsace is the fourth-smallest of the 26 regions of France in land area , and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the sixth-most densely populated region in France , with 222 inhabitants per km²...
who acted as liaison officer between the local French prefecture and the Gestapo. She introduced herself as a niece of British General Bernard Montgomery and threatened Schenck with terrible retribution if harm came to the prisoners. She reinforced the threat with a mercenary appeal—an offer of two million francs for the men's release. Schenck in turn introduced her to a Gestapo officer, a
BelgianThe Kingdom of Belgium is a country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters, as well as those of other major international organizations, including NATO...
named Max Waem.
After Cammaerts and the other two men had been released, Captain Schenck was advised to leave Digne. He did not and was subsequently murdered by a person or persons unknown. His wife kept the bribe money and, after the war, attempted to exchange it for new francs. She was arrested but was released after the authorities investigated her story. She was able to exchange the money for only a tiny portion of its value.
Denouement
Skarbek's service in France restored her political reputation and greatly enhanced her military reputation. When the SOE teams returned from France (or in some cases, were given 24 hours to depart, by de Gaulle), some of the British girls sought new missions in the war against Japan; but Skarbek, as a Pole, was ideally placed to serve as a courier for missions to her homeland in the final missions of SOE. As the Red Army advanced across Poland, the British government and Polish government-in-exile worked together to leave a network in place that would report on events in Poland. Kowerski and Skarbek were now fully reconciled with the Polish forces and were preparing to be dropped into Poland in early 1945. In the event, that the missions were canceled, Skarbek was not to return to Poland. The mission, called Operation Freston, was canceled because the first party to enter Poland were captured by the Red Army (they were released in February 1945).
The women of SOE were all given military rank, with honorary commissions in either the Women's Transport Service (FANY), officially part of the
Auxiliary Territorial ServiceThe Auxiliary Territorial Service was the women's branch of the British Army during the Second World War. It was formed on 9 September 1938, initially as a women's voluntary service, and existed until 1 February 1949.The ATS had its roots in the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps , which formed in 1917...
(ATS) though a very elite and autonomous part, or the
Women's Auxiliary Air ForceThe Women's Auxiliary Air Force , whose members were invariably referred to as Waafs , was the female auxiliary of the Royal Air Force during World War II, established in 1939. At its peak strength, in 1943, WAAF numbers exceeded 180,000, with over 2,000 women enlisting per week.A Women's Royal Air...
(WAAF). Skarbek appears to have been a member of both.
In preparation for her service in France, she appears to have been with
FANYThe First Aid Nursing Yeomanry is a British independent all-female unit and registered charity affiliated to, but not part of, the Territorial Army....
. On her return, she seems to have transferred to the
WAAFThe Women's Auxiliary Air Force , whose members were invariably referred to as Waafs , was the female auxiliary of the Royal Air Force during World War II, established in 1939. At its peak strength, in 1943, WAAF numbers exceeded 180,000, with over 2,000 women enlisting per week.A Women's Royal Air...
as an officer until the end of the war in Europe: 21 November 1944 to 14 May 1945.
Skarbek was one of the few SOE female field agents promoted beyond subaltern rank to
CaptainThe army rank of Captain is an officer rank historically corresponding to command of a company of soldiers. The rank is also used by some air forces and marine forces. Today a captain is typically the commander, or second in command, of a company or squadron...
, or Air Force equivalent:
Flight OfficerThe title Flight Officer is a military rank previously used by the United States and Commonwealth Nations. The term is also used to describe job title positions as aircrew members.- Aircrew function :...
, the WAAF counterpart of the
Flight LieutenantFlight Lieutenant is a junior commissioned rank in the Royal Air Force and the air forces of many Commonwealth countries. It ranks above Flying Officer and immediately below Squadron Leader. The name of the rank is the complete phrase; it is never shortened to "Lieutenant"...
rank for male officers. Skarbek, like
Pearl WitheringtonCecile Pearl Witherington Cornioley CBE was a World War II SOE agent born in Paris to British parents.-Wartime service:...
, the
courierA courier is a person or company employed to deliver messages, packages and mail. Couriers are distinguished from ordinary mail services by features such as speed, security, tracking, signature, specialization and individualization of services, and committed delivery times, which are optional for...
who had taken command of a group when the designated commander was captured, and
Yvonne CormeauYvonne Cormeau, born Beatrice Yvonne Biesterfeld was a heroine of the Special Operations Executive during the Second World War who was the second female radio operator to be sent to France and who talked her way out of arrest by pretending her wireless was an X-ray machine.-Early life:Beatrice...
, the most successful
wirelessWireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of electrical conductors or "wires". The distances involved may be short or long . When the context is clear, the term is often shortened to "wireless"...
operator ended the war as Honorary Flight Officers.
Decorations
For her work in conjunction with the British authorities, Krystyna Skarbek/Christine Granville was awarded the
OBEThe Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry established on 4 June 1917 by King George V. The Order includes five classes in civil and military divisions...
, an award normally associated with officers around the rank of Colonel, and a rank above the "standard" award of Member of the Order of the British Empire (
MBEMBE can stand for:* Mail Boxes Etc.* Management by exception* Master of Bioethics* Master of Bioscience Enterprise* Master of Business and Engineering* Mean Biased Error...
), given to the other women of SOE.
Her remarkable exploits at Digne were recognized with an additional award specifically for gallantry, marking it as a separate action not already covered by the OBE awarded for exemplary "general service". She received, nevertheless, the next award down and still an exceptional decoration: the
George MedalThe George Medal is the second level civil decoration of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth.The GM was instituted on 24 September 1940 by King George VI. At this time, during the height of The Blitz, there was a strong desire to reward the many acts of civilian courage...
.
Several years after the Digne incident, in London, Skarbek told another Pole and
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
veteran that, during her negotiations with the Gestapo, she had been unaware of any danger to herself. Only after she and her comrades had made good their escape did it hit home: "What have I done! They could have shot me as well."
French recognition of her contribution to the liberation of France came with the award of the
Croix de GuerreThe croix de guerre is a military decoration of both France and Belgium, where it is also known as the Oorlogskruis . It was first created in 1915 in both countries and consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins...
.
Postwar
After the war, Skarbek was left without financial reserves or a native country to return to.
Xan FieldingXan Fielding, born Alexander Wallace Fielding DSO, was a British writerand translator, noted for his English translations of Planet of the Apesand The Bridge on the River Kwai, both by Pierre Boulle....
, whom she had saved at Digne, wrote in his 1954 book,
Hide and Seek, and dedicated
"To the memory of Christine Granville":
In that latter period of her life, she met
Ian FlemingIan Lancaster Fleming was a British author and journalist. Fleming is best remembered for creating the character of James Bond and chronicling Bond's adventures in twelve novels and nine short stories...
, with whom she allegedly had a year-long affair, although there is no proof that this affair occurred. The man who made the allegation, Donald McCormick, relied on the word of a woman named "Olga Bialoguski"; McCormick always refused to identify her, and she is not included in his list of acknowledgments.
Death
Christine Granville was stabbed to death on 15 June 1952, at the age of 37, by Dennis Muldowney, an obsessed merchant-marine steward whose advances she had declined. The circumstances of her death and an explanation of the swiftness of her killer's execution can be found at the National Archives in London and in
Ronald Nowicki-Life:In April 1975 Nowicki founded the San Francisco Review of Books, which was published in the San Francisco Bay Area until 1997. The SFRB began as a magazine and later adopted a tabloid format...
's forthcoming biography of Granville.
Krystyna Skarbek/Christine Granville was interred in
St. Mary's Roman Catholic CemeterySt. Mary's Roman Catholic Cemetery is located at Kensal Green in London. Established in 1858, the 29 acre site was built just up the hill from the much larger Kensal Green Cemetery...
at
Kensal GreenKensal Green is a neighbourhood in the London Borough of Brent. The area is also referred to as Kensal Rise.- Location :A small area on the southern edge of the London Borough of Brent, Kensal Green borders the boroughs of Westminster to the East, and Kensington and Chelsea to the South...
, northwest London. Following his death in 1988, the ashes of her comrade-in-arms and partner,
Andrzej KowerskiAndrzej Kowerski was a Polish Army officer and SOE agent in World War II.-Life:During the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, Lieutenant Kowerski fought gallantly as a member of Poland's 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, winning his country's highest military decoration, the Virtuti...
(aka Andrew Kennedy) were interred at the foot of her grave.
Popular culture
Skarbek became a legend in her lifetime. Soon after her death, she entered the realm of popular culture. It has been said that
Ian FlemingIan Lancaster Fleming was a British author and journalist. Fleming is best remembered for creating the character of James Bond and chronicling Bond's adventures in twelve novels and nine short stories...
, in his first
James BondJames Bond 007 is a fictional character created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short story collections. The character has also been used in the longest running and most financially successful English language film franchise to date, starting in 1962 with Dr...
novel,
Casino RoyaleCasino Royale by Ian Fleming is the first James Bond novel. It would eventually pave the way for eleven other novels by Fleming himself, in addition to two short story collections, followed by many 'continuation' Bond novels by other authors....
(1953), modeled
Vesper LyndVesper Lynd is a fictional character of Ian Fleming's James Bond novel Casino Royale. It has been claimed that Fleming based Lynd on Christine Granville/Krystyna Skarbek. In the 1967 film of Casino Royale she is played by Ursula Andress...
on her. According to
William F. NolanWilliam Francis Nolan is an American author, who writes stories mostly of the science fiction, fantasy and horror genres. He is best known for coauthoring the novel Logan's Run, with George Clayton Johnson. He co-wrote the screenplay for the 1976 horror film Burnt Offerings which starred Karen...
, Fleming also based
Tatiana RomanovaTatiana Romanova is a fictional character in the James Bond novel, film, and video game From Russia with Love. She is played by Daniela Bianchi in the movie. According to William F...
, in his 1957 novel
From Russia, with Love, on Skarbek. Four decades later, in 1999, Polish writer Maria Nurowska published a novel,
Miłośnica (The Lover)—an account of a fictional female journalist's attempt to probe Skarbek's story.
A biography by
Ronald Nowicki-Life:In April 1975 Nowicki founded the San Francisco Review of Books, which was published in the San Francisco Bay Area until 1997. The SFRB began as a magazine and later adopted a tabloid format...
is to be published in 2010 and is expected to provide new documentation on Skarbek's prewar life in Poland and in Africa and on her
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
SOE work. It may elucidate some enigmas left unaddressed in earlier studies.
A Polish TV series has been announced by that country's public broadcasting corporation,
Telewizja PolskaTelewizja Polska Spółka Akcyjna is Poland's public broadcasting corporation....
(Polish Television).
The 5 February 2009
Krakow PostThe Krakow Post is an English-language monthly newspaper based in Krakow, Poland and owned by Lifeboat Ltd. It covers local and national news, politics, human interest stories, culture, business, and sports and uses only original content. It came under new ownership in April 2008, beginning with...
reported that
Agnieszka HollandAgnieszka Holland is a Polish film and TV director and screenwriter. Best recognized for her highly political contributions to Polish New Wave cinema, Holland ranks as one of Poland's most prominent filmmakers.-Personal life:...
will direct a big-budget film about Skarbek—
Christine: War My Love.
See also
- Madeleine Masson
- Kazimierz Leski (an intelligence officer with the "Musketeers" and the Home Army)
- List of Poles
- Zakopane
- Poglish
Poglish or Ponglish , a portmanteau word combining the words "Polish" and "English," designates the product of mixing Polish and English language elements within a single speech production, or the use of "false friends" and of cognate words in senses that have...
Sources
- Xan Fielding
Xan Fielding, born Alexander Wallace Fielding DSO, was a British writerand translator, noted for his English translations of Planet of the Apesand The Bridge on the River Kwai, both by Pierre Boulle....
, Hide and Seek: the Story of a War-Time Agent, London, Secker & Warburg, 1954. (Dedicated to Krystyna Skarbek; includes the Digne incident.)
- Madeleine Masson
Madeleine Masson was a South African-born English-language author of plays, film scripts, novels, memoirs and biographies.-Life:...
, Christine: a Search for Christine Granville, G.M., O.B.E., Croix de Guerre, with a Foreword by Francis CammaertsFrancis Charles Albert Cammaerts DSO was an outstanding Special Operations Executive agent who organised French Resistance groups to sabotage German communications in occupied France.-Early life:...
, D.S.O., Légion d'Honneur, Croix de Guerre, U.S. Medal of Freedom, London, Hamish Hamilton, 1975. (Republished by Virago, 2005.)
- Marcus Binney
Marcus Binney, CBE is a British architectural historian and author. He is best known for his conservation work regarding Britain's heritage.-Early and family life:...
, The Women Who Lived for Danger: The Women Agents of SOE in the Second World War, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 2002. (A fifth of the book is devoted to Krystyna Skarbek; includes a few more recently available documents, but largely draws on Madeleine MassonMadeleine Masson was a South African-born English-language author of plays, film scripts, novels, memoirs and biographies.-Life:...
's work.)
- Christopher Kasparek
Christopher Kasparek is a Scottish-born writer of Polish descent who has edited and translated, into English, works by Ignacy Krasicki, Bolesław Prus, Florian Znaniecki, Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Marian Rejewski and Władysław Kozaczuk, as well as the Polish-Lithuanian Constitution of May 3, 1791. ...
, "Krystyna Skarbek: Re-viewing Britain's Legendary Polish Agent", The Polish ReviewThe Polish Review is an English-language scholarly journal published quarterly in New York City by the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America.The Polish Review has been appearing since 1956.-Editors in Chief:*Stanisław Skrzypek...
, vol. XLIX, no. 3 (2004), pp. 945–53.
- Ronald Nowicki
-Life:In April 1975 Nowicki founded the San Francisco Review of Books, which was published in the San Francisco Bay Area until 1997. The SFRB began as a magazine and later adopted a tabloid format...
, "Krystyna Skarbek: a Letter", The Polish ReviewThe Polish Review is an English-language scholarly journal published quarterly in New York City by the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America.The Polish Review has been appearing since 1956.-Editors in Chief:*Stanisław Skrzypek...
, vol. L, no. 1 (2005), pp. 93–101.
- Christopher Kasparek
Christopher Kasparek is a Scottish-born writer of Polish descent who has edited and translated, into English, works by Ignacy Krasicki, Bolesław Prus, Florian Znaniecki, Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Marian Rejewski and Władysław Kozaczuk, as well as the Polish-Lithuanian Constitution of May 3, 1791. ...
, letter to the editor (corrigenda to Kasparek's article in vol. XLIX, no. 3, 2004, and response to Ronald Nowicki-Life:In April 1975 Nowicki founded the San Francisco Review of Books, which was published in the San Francisco Bay Area until 1997. The SFRB began as a magazine and later adopted a tabloid format...
's letter in vol. L, no. 1, 2005), The Polish ReviewThe Polish Review is an English-language scholarly journal published quarterly in New York City by the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America.The Polish Review has been appearing since 1956.-Editors in Chief:*Stanisław Skrzypek...
, vol. L, no. 2 (2005), pp. 253–55.
External links