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Kouros
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A kouros (plural kouroi, Ancient Greek ) is the modern term given to those representations of male youths which first appear in the Archaic period in Greece. The term kouros, meaning youth, was first proposed for what were previously thought to be depictions of Apollo by V. I. Leonardos in 1895 in relation to the youth from Keratia, and adopted by Lechat as a generic term for the standing male figure in 1904.
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A kouros (plural kouroi, Ancient Greek ) is the modern term given to those representations of male youths which first appear in the Archaic period in Greece. The term kouros, meaning youth, was first proposed for what were previously thought to be depictions of Apollo by V. I. Leonardos in 1895 in relation to the youth from Keratia, and adopted by Lechat as a generic term for the standing male figure in 1904. Such statues are found across the Greek-speaking world, the preponderance of these were found in sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotia, alone. These free-standing sculptures were typically marble, but also the form is rendered in limestone, wood, bronze, ivory and terracotta.
Their female counterparts in sculpture are the kore (korai plural).
Purpose
The kouros type appears to have served several functions. It is certain that it was used to represent the god Apollo, as attested by its depiction on a vase painting in the presence of suppliant. As does the description of the statue of the Pythian Apollo at Samos by Diodoros as "Egyptian works, with his arms hanging by his sides and his legs parted". However, not all kouroi are images of a deity; many have been discovered in cemeteries where they most likely served as commemorative tombstones of the deceased, also the type was used as a memorial for victors in the games (like trophies) (Pausanias describes the statue of Arrhichion, an Olympic pankratiast, as in the kouros scheme), and some kouroi have been found in sanctuaries other than that of Apollo. Indeed some kouroi placed in sanctuaries were not inscribed with the name of the god but with a mortal, for example the 'Delphi Twins' Kleobis and Biton were honoured for their piety with matching kouroi.
Diodoros asserts that the works of Daidalos had the same shape as older Egyptian statues, and that the kouros known as the Apollo of Samos "resembles Egyptian works". A direct influence between Egyptian monumental sculpture (in particular the figure of Horus) and the kouros type has long been conjectured, not least of all because of known trade and cultural relations that had existed since the mid-seventh century. A recent study by Eleanor Guralnick applied stereophotogrammetric measurement and cluster analysis to a number of Greek and Egyptian statues and found the correlation between the Second Canon of the 26th Dynasty and Greek kouroi to be widely distributed but not universal.
Cultural origin and evolution
According to Herodotus, Psammetichus I (664-610 BC) invited Ionians and Carians to settle in lands provided for them along the Nile and these were the first foreigners to settle in Egypt. It is no coincidence that large marble sculptures began to replace the smaller xoana in Greek temples at about 650. The initial kouroi were created at a time when Greece was under the cultural influence of Egypt. Some features apparently taken from Egyptian sculpture are:
- Frontal pose with no torsion of the body. Head erect, eyes front, face flat, head square, waist narrow, muscles squarish and poorly delineated.
- Left foot advanced with no corresponding hip displacement. This characteristically rigid frontal striding pose is reminiscent of statues of Egyptian pharaohs.
- Arms hanging straight at sides fingers curved, thumb foremost, although a few show one arm extended forward from the elbow, holding an offering.
- A faint smile (the "archaic smile") on their lips.
Some differences are:
- Egyptian statues are supported by a pillar behind; Greek are free-standing.
- Egyptian males have a loin cloth; kouroi are always naked.
Development
The earliest extant examples may be the two life-sized marble figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos dating from the second or third quarter of the seventh century. The canonical form of the kouros persists until the beginning of the classical period, by which time artists had achieve a high degree of anatomical verisimilitude, if not naturalism, as can be observed on such transitional works as the Kritios Boy, ca. 480 BC.
The absolute chronology of the kouros form is uncertain; none of the sculptures have secure dates. Further there is a strong homogeneity across the various regional schools: where anatomical innovations were adopted they seem to have spread quickly amongst the different workshops so that "regional distinctions become merged in a common progression". Consequently the development of the kouros type as we now understand it is based on the relative chronology delineated by Gisela Richter. She distinguishes six groups by their common anatomical features.
Sounion group
C. 615-590 BC. Artistic activity in Attica, Argos, Corinthian colony of Corcyra, Thasos, Naxos Delos, Thera, Samos. New York kouros, Dermys and Kittylos, Delphi Twins, Sounion, the Delos colossus.Tentative date based on allowing enough time for successive stages of kouroi from this period to later ones. Also relation to Nessos amphora. Also NY-Sounion k to Corinthian pyxis p.38.
Conception of form is abstract and geometrical, emphasis on architectural shape and interrelation of parts. Figure displays the four faces of the block, form cubic with details incised, anatomy only partially understood. Harmony and expressive pattern the goal, proportions abnormal. Torso four-sided and flat, back higher than chest, vertebral column straight. Skull undeveloped, flat at back and often on top. Ear carved in one plane, stylized. Tragus knob like, either on cheek or lobe. Antitragus not indicated. Eyes large and flat, canthus not marked, lachrymal caruncle not indicated. Mouth horizontal, lips on same plane, corners of mouth form triangular depressions. Hair arranged in parallel beaded tresses, rarely radiates from vertex. Sterno-mastoids, when marked, indicated by grooves running to sternal notch. No indication of swelling of trapezius on outline of shoulders. Clavicles are flat ridges along whole course of shoulders. Median line sometimes marked by groove from sternal notch to navel. Lower boundary of thorax has shape of pointed arch. Rectus abdominis, three or more transverse divisions above navel. Nevel generally knob in circular groove. Serratus magnus not indicated. Shoulder blades outlined by grooves on surface of back. Erector spinae attachment to posterior part of the iliac crest sometimes indicated by grooves in the lumbar regions. Forearm supinated, palm towards body. Arms often separated from body between armpit and hand. Thumbs large. Vastus internus descends to about same level as vastus externus, shin vertical, malleoli level. Weight evenly distributed on both legs and flanks level.
Orchomenos-Thera group
C. 590-570 BC. This period witnesses a lull in Attica with perhaps only two identifiable works from the beginning of the era until the second quarter of century (NAMA 3858 and 4181), this might be due to the Solonic reforms and their restriction on the extravagance of private funerals. Activity is more vigorous in Boeotia, especially those from the Ptoan sanctuary and the Orchomenos kouros (NAMA 9), early work there is probably native. Also Corinth, Actium produces one of best examples of the period (Louvre MNB 767), detailing still of in the form of grooves and ridges but there is the beginning of modeling in the full roundness of natural form. One of the more accomplished products of the time is the Thera kouros (NAMA 8), softer and less muscular in modeling it is more Ionian than Dorian though Thera was a Dorian colony. We may deduce the chronology of this period only if the dates for the Sounion and Volodmera groups are correct since there is no external evidence for the dates of this style. However, we can usefully compare the heads on vase painting of middle Corinthian 600-575which share the same stolid expression, flat skull, large eyes and horizontal mouth.
The characteristics of this style are as follows. The ear is still carved in one plane, but less stylised. Eyes are not so large as before and more rounded. Mouth is horizontal but no longer always in one plane. The slight protrusions of flanks are sometimes prolonged into a girdle-like ridge, the sculptor occasionally marks the anterior spine of the crest. Shoulder blades are now separate raised planes. The erector spinae sometimes indicated as raised planes. Arms are generally joined to body. The depression over great trochanter is generally omitted. Shin sometimes curves inwards. Left flank is occasionally placed slightly forward.
Tenea-Volomandra group
Ca. 575-550 BC. Named after an Attic kouros found at Volomandra (NAMA 1906) and a Corinthian specimen from Tenea (Munich 168) this period marks the flowering of the Middle Archaic, and these kouroi are contemporary with such works as the Berlin Standing Kore, the Moschophoros and the Bluebeard Pediment. There is a tension observable in this group between the solid, architectonic quality of early styles and the expressive possibilities of a vigorous, fluid naturalism . The anatomical novelties of this time are as follows. The ear is carved in more than one plane. A roundness of the eye is indicated henceforth. Lips curve upwards and meet more or less at corners, the upper lip protrudes over lower. Construction of neck is generalized, sterno-mastoids when indicated are marked by slightly modelled shapes. On the median line a groove along sternum is generally replaced replaced by modelled shapes and only the linea alba is marked by only a groove. The lower boundary of thorax assumes the shape of a somewhat rounded arch. There is a slight indication of the external oblique bulging over the iliac crest. Shoulder blades are indicated as modelled shapes. The erector spinae is sometimes modelled. Size of thumb is normal. The vastus internus descends lower than vastus externus. Shins curve inwards. The external malleolus is lower and further back than the internal one. The little toes slant inwards. The metatarsal bones are lightly indicated.
The absolute chronology of this period is provided by the dedication of Rhombos on the Moschophoros, which may belong to the same time as a decree referring to the Panathenaia of 566. The Moschophoros is stylistically similar to early in this group giving us an approximate upper limit of 570. Additionally the terracotta kneeling boy found in a well in the Agora and dated by its black-figure pottery sherd stratum to circa 550 shares the flat almond eyes, absence of the trapezium and pointed arch of the lower thorax that characterizes the late Tenea-Volomandra, furnishing us with a tentative lower boundary for the style.
Melos group
C. 555-540 BC. Figures of this period are simpler than before, their muscles are no longer separately accentuated. There is a tendency to flowing contour and a generalization of form. The tragus now sometimes assumes its natural form. The anterior part of the helix, which is directed backwards (crus helicis), is often prominent, and joined with the upper end of tragus. The antitragus is sometimes tentatively indicated, though wrongly placed. The anterior triangle of the neck is now better understood. Navel generally modelled as a depression. Indication of external oblique buging over iliac crest. The lower boundary of abdomen occaisionaly forms a deep curve. Forearm and arm sometimes correctly semi-pronated; both directed towards body. Arms sometimes arched towards body below the armpit. Big toe projects a little further or same as second toe. Four smaller toes and toe nails curve gently downwards.
"Astonishingly uniform" the products of this period are found across the Greek world in large quantities. This group is named after the best preserved example of the era (NAMA 1558). The date of this group is conjectured on the basis that one generation would be required for the development of the Melos group style prior to the more securely dated Anavysos-Ptoon style. However Richter argues there may be some relationship to other contemporary Greek art works, namely: the figures on Late Corinthian pottery circa 550 BC. exhibit the same degree of naturalism, and the archaic column sculptures from the Temple of Artemis Ephesos, thought to have been supplied by Croesus of Lydia, share some anatomical features. Of the important works that come done to us there is the colossal kouros from Megera (NAMA 13), a transitional early piece from Boeotia (Thebes 3) and an early Parian example (Louvre MND 888).
Anavysos-Ptoon group
C. 540-520 BC. This is the era of the Peisistratos dynasty and marks the assumption of Athens as the centre of artistic activity in Greece. In this period of great development the the anatomical proportions become normal, the forms modelled and the spine clearly S-shaped. The head is now spherical and well-developed. The tragus takes on its natural form, the antitragus is also indicated. Hair occaisionally descends as far as nape of neck. The sterno-mastoids when marked are indicated by modelled shapes. Their attachment to sternum and clavicles is often not indicated, this results in a continuous hollow groove or run above the clavicle. There is an attempt to indicate the backward curve of clavicle. Groove along linea alba is sometimes continued below the navel. The lower boundary of thorax arch is indicated. In the flanks the swelling of the external part is well developed. Lower boundary of abdomen assumes shape of small semicircle or deep curve. The erector spinae always indicated as modelled shape. Generally hand and forearm is semi-pronated. Hands are no longer attached to body but joined by short supports. The metacarpal bones are sometimes indicated. The bulge of the vastus internus increases. Toes are no longer parallel but do not recede along a continuous curve. Toes and nails point upwards. The articulation of joints is well rendered. Sometimes the flank of the advanced leg is placed forward and higher than receding leg.
The characteristics of this group can be observed on the Siphnian Treasury which is dated on external evidence before 525 BC, therefore allowing time for the maturation of the style we can date the beginning of this group to, roughly, a generation prior. The earliest is perhaps the Munich kouros (Glyptothek 169) judging by the rendering of some of the muscles. Other significant Attic kouroi in this style are the Anavyssos (NAMA 3851), the akropolis torso (Akropolis 665, 596), and the Rayet head (Carlsberg Glyptothek 418). The island of Keos supplies us with one of the best examples of the time (NAMA 3686), notable for its advanced rendering of the back where the greatest protrusion of the back is level with that of the chest. Keos was likely under the cultural influence of Athens at this time and this kouros is comparable to and chronologically close to the Anavyssos kouros and akropolis head. From the Ptoan sanctuary in Boeotia we have the Ptoon 12 kouros (NAMA), "softer, less sturdy" suggests Richter it is, she asserts, a native Boeotian product and not an Athenian import.
Ptoon 20 group
C. 520-485 BC. The last stage in the development of the kouros type is the period in which the Greek sculptor attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used it to create a harmonious, proportionate whole. The features that now become expressed are as follows. The lachrymal caruncle is sometimes indicated. Lips curved upwards only in early examples, the upper lip protrudes markedly over lover and lips are well shaped. Hair is generally short or rolled up behind, it radiates from a point near vertex and carved in wavy strands. The structure of neck is now correct. There is an indication of swelling of trapezium on the outline of shoulder, becoming more pronounced over time. Clavicles assume an s-shape and lose themselves in shoulders. The lower boundary of thorax assumes a semicircular arch. The rectus abdominis, now reduced in number to two, with the top one incorporated into lower boundary of thorax. There is a small raised plane caused by projection of xiphoid appendage sometimes observable at lower end of sternum. Navel has fold of skin above in most examples. The lower boundary of abdomen assumes shape of semicircle, and the upper edge of torso with two concave curves becomes regular in form. Forearm and hand correctly pronated. Arms sometimes held free from body. Flanks; occasionally at first later regularly, flank and buttock of supporting leg rise in conformity with action.
This period is framed by the stasis of the Peisistratid era and the begining of Athenian democracy and the Persian war. The upper limit of this group may be fixed by the sculpture of the temple of Apollo, Delphi. Architecturally earlier than the Hekatompedon of Athens the Delphi temple has a probably date of c.520, thus the kouroi of its pediment which betray the swelling trapezium and semicircular lower boundary of the abdomen can be associated with later examples of the group. Yet these same youths have a grooved, narrow lower boundary to the thorax and their flanks are level, suggesting that they are early specimens of the style. Richter names this group after the kouros Ptoon 20, NAMA, which is likely a Boeotian work dedicated by Pythias of Akraiphia and Aischrion to Apollo of the silver bow. This along with the torso form Eutresis (Thebes 7) indicate a vigorous Boeotian school of sculpture which may have existed to serve the Ptoan sanctuary. Attic production is considerable up to c.500 BC after which it seems to peter out. Important late kouroi from Athens include the Aristodikos kouros, an akropolis statuette (NAMA 6445) and the bronze Apollo from Piraeus.
Bibliography
- J. Boardman, Greek Sculpture: The Archaic Period, a handbook, 1991.
- E. Buschor, Frühgriechische Jünglinge 1950.
- W. Deonna, Les 'Apollons Archaïques', étude sur le type masculin de la statuaire greque au VIme siècle avant notre ère, 1909.
- L.D. Caskey, The Proportions of the Apollo of Tenea, American Journal of Archaeology, 73, 1924.
- Eleanor Guralnick, Profiles of Kouroi, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 89, No. 3 (Jul., 1985), pp. 399-409.
- E Guralnick, The Proportions of Kouroi, American Journal of Archaeology, 1978
- G.M.A. Richter, Kouroi, Archaic Greek Youths, A study of the development of the Kouros type in Greek sculpture, 1960.
See also
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